Crusades
Crusades military expeditions, beginning in the late 11th century, that were organized by Western Christians in response to centuries of Muslim wars of expansion. Their objectives were to check the spread of Islam, to retake control of the Holy Land, to conquer pagan areas, and to recapture formerly Christian territories; they were seen by many of their participants as a means of redemption and expiation for sins. Between 1095, when the First Crusade was launched, and 1291, when the Latin Christians were finally expelled from their kingdom in Syria, there were numerous expeditions to the Holy Land, to Spain, and even to the Baltic; the Crusades continued for several centuries after 1291, usually as military campaigns intended to halt or slow the advance of Muslim power or to conquer pagan areas. Crusading declined rapidly during the 16th century with the advent of the Protestant Reformation and the decline of papal authority.
Approximately two-thirds of the ancient Christian world had been conquered by Muslims by the end of the 11th century, including the important regions of Palestine, Syria, Egypt, and Anatolia. The Crusades, attempting to check this advance, initially enjoyed success, founding a Christian state in Palestine and Syria, but the continued growth of Islamic states ultimately reversed those gains. By the 14th century the Ottoman Turks had established themselves in the Balkans and would penetrate deeper into Europe despite repeated efforts to repulse them.
The Crusades constitute a controversial chapter in the history of Christianity, and their excesses have been the subject of centuries of historiography. The Crusades also played an integral role in the expansion of medieval Europe.
Although still backward when compared with the other civilizations of the Mediterranean basin, western Europe had become a significant power by the end of the 11th century. It was composed of several kingdoms loosely describable as feudal. While endemic private warfare, brigandage, and problems associated with vassalage and inheritance still existed, some monarchies were already developing better-integrated systems of government. At the same time, Europe was feeling the effects of population growth that had begun toward the end of the 10th century and would continue well into the 13th century. An economic revival was also in full swing well before the First Crusade; forestlands were being cleared, frontiers pushed forward, and markets organized. Moreover, Italian shipping was beginning to challenge the Muslim predominance in the Mediterranean. Especially significant for the Crusade was a general overhaul of the ecclesiastical structure in the 11th century, associated with the Gregorian Reform movement, which enabled the popes to assume a more active role in society. In 1095, for example, Urban II was in a position strong enough to convoke two important ecclesiastical councils, despite meeting resistance from Henry IV, the German emperor, who opposed papal reform policies.
Thus it was that in the closing years of the 11th century western Europe was abounding in energy and confidence. What is more, as is evident in achievements such as the Norman Conquest of England in 1066, Europeans possessed the capacity to launch a major military undertaking at the very time the Seljuq Turks, one of several tribes on the northeastern frontier of the Muslim world who had embraced Islam in the 11th century, were beginning to move south and west into Iran and beyond with all the enthusiasm of a new convert.
The Crusades were also a development of popular religious life and feeling in the West. The social effect of religious belief at the time was complex: religion was moved by tales of signs and wonders, and it attributed natural disasters to supernatural intervention. At the same time, laypersons were not indifferent to reform movements, and on occasion they agitated against clergy whom they regarded as unworthy. A peace movement also developed, especially in France, under the leadership of certain bishops but with considerable popular support. Religious leaders proclaimed the Peace of God and the Truce of God, designed to halt or at least limit warfare and assaults during certain days of the week and times of the year and to protect the lives of clergy, travelers, women, and cattle and others unable to defend themselves against brigandage. It is particularly interesting to note that the Council of Clermont, at which Urban II called for the First Crusade (1095), renewed and generalized the Peace of God.
It may seem paradoxical that a council both promulgated peace and officially sanctioned war, but the peace movement was designed to protect those in distress, and a strong element of the Crusade was the idea of giving aid to fellow Christians in the East. Tied to this idea was the notion that war to defend Christendom was not only a justifiable undertaking but a holy work and therefore pleasing to God.
losely associated with this Western concept of holy war was another popular religious practice, pilgrimage to a holy shrine. Eleventh-century Europe abounded in local shrines housing relics of saints, but three great centres of pilgrimage stood out above the others: Rome, with the tombs of Saints Peter and Paul; Santiago de Compostela, in northwestern Spain; and Jerusalem, with the Holy Sepulchre of Christ's entombment. Pilgrimage, which had always been considered an act of devotion, had also come to be regarded as a more formal expiation for serious sin, even occasionally prescribed as a penance for the sinner by his confessor.
Yet another element in the popular religious consciousness of the 11th century, one associated with both Crusade and pilgrimage, was the belief that the end of the world was imminent. Some scholars have discovered evidence of apocalyptic expectations around the years 1000 and 1033 (the millennium of the birth and Passion of Jesus, respectively), and others have emphasized the continuance of the idea throughout the 11th century and beyond. Moreover, in certain late 11th-century portrayals of the end of all things, the “last emperor,” now popularly identified with the “king of the Franks,” the final successor of Charlemagne, was to lead the faithful to Jerusalem to await the Second Coming of Christ. Jerusalem, as the earthly symbol of the heavenly city, figured prominently in Western consciousness, and, as the number of pilgrimages to Jerusalem increased in the 11th century, it became clear that any interruption of access to the city would have serious repercussions.
By the middle of the 11th century, the Seljuq Turks had wrested political authority from the ʿAbbāsid caliphs of Baghdad. Seljuq policy, originally directed southward against the Fāṭimids of Egypt, was increasingly diverted by the pressure of Turkmen raids into Anatolia and Byzantine Armenia. A Byzantine army was defeated and Emperor Romanus IV Diogenes was captured at Manzikert in 1071, and Christian Asia Minor was thereby opened to eventual Turkish occupation. Meanwhile, many Armenians south of the Caucasus migrated south to join others in the region of the Taurus Mountains and to form a colony in Cilicia.
Seljuq expansion southward continued, and in 1085 the capture of Antioch in Syria, one of the patriarchal sees of Christianity, was another blow to Byzantine prestige. Thus, although the Seljuq empire never successfully held together as a unit, it appropriated most of Asia Minor, including Nicaea, from the Byzantine Empire and brought a resurgent Islam perilously close to Constantinople, the Byzantine capital. It was this danger that prompted the emperor, Alexius Comnenus, to seek aid from the West, and by 1095 the West was ready to respond.
The turmoil of these years disrupted normal political life and made the pilgrimage to Jerusalem difficult and often impossible. Stories of dangers and molestation reached the West and remained in the popular mind even after conditions improved. Furthermore, informed authorities began to realize that the power of the Muslim world now seriously menaced the West as well as the East. It was this realization that led to the Crusades.
Alexius's appeal came at a time when relations between the Eastern and Western branches of the Christian world were improving. Difficulties between the two in the middle years of the century had resulted in a de facto, though not formally proclaimed, schism in 1054, and ecclesiastical disagreements had been accentuated by Norman occupation of formerly Byzantine areas in southern Italy. A campaign led by the Norman adventurer Robert Guiscard against the Greek mainland further embittered the Byzantines, and it was only after Robert's death in 1085 that conditions for a renewal of normal relations between East and West were reasonably favourable. Envoys of Emperor Alexius Comnenus thus arrived at the Council of Piacenza in 1095 at a propitious moment, and it seems probable that Pope Urban II viewed military aid as a means toward restoring ecclesiastical unity.
The Council of Clermont convoked by Urban on November 18, 1095, was attended largely by bishops of southern France as well as a few representatives from northern France and elsewhere. Much important ecclesiastical business was transacted, which resulted in a series of canons, among them one that renewed the Peace of God and another that granted a plenary indulgence (the remission of all penance for sin) to those who undertook to aid Christians in the East. Then in a great outdoor assembly the pope, a Frenchman, addressed a large crowd.
His exact words will never be known, since the only surviving accounts of his speech were written years later, but he apparently stressed the plight of Eastern Christians, the molestation of pilgrims, and the desecration of the holy places. He urged those who were guilty of disturbing the peace to turn their warlike energies toward a holy cause. He emphasized the need for penance along with the acceptance of suffering and taught that no one should undertake this pilgrimage for any but the most exalted of motives.
The response was immediate and overwhelming, probably far greater than Urban had anticipated. Cries of “Deus le volt” (“God wills it”) were heard everywhere, and it was decided that those who agreed to go should wear a cross. Moreover, it was not only warrior knights who responded; a popular element, apparently unexpected and probably not desired, also came forward.
The era of Clermont witnessed the concurrence of three significant developments: first, there existed as never before a popular religious fervour that was not without marked eschatological tendencies in which the holy city of Jerusalem figured prominently; second, war against the infidel had come to be regarded as a religious undertaking, a work pleasing to God; and finally, western Europe now possessed the ecclesiastical and secular institutional and organizational capacity to plan such an enterprise and carry it through.
Following Pope Urban's speech, preparations began in both East and West. Emperor Alexius, who had doubtless anticipated the mustering of some sort of auxiliary force, apparently soon realized that he would have to provide for and police a much larger influx of warriors. In the West, as the leaders began to assemble their armies, those who took the cross sought to raise money, often by selling or mortgaging property, both for the immediate purchase of equipment and for the long-term needs of the journey.
As preparations were under way, several less-organized bands of knights and peasants, commonly known as the “People's Crusade,” set out across Europe. The most famous of these, brought together by a remarkable popular preacher, Peter the Hermit, and his associate Walter Sansavoir, reached Constantinople after having caused considerable disorder in Hungary and Bulgaria. Alexius received Peter cordially and advised him to await the arrival of the main Crusade force. But the rank and file grew unruly, and on August 6, 1096, they were ferried across the Bosporus. While Peter was in Constantinople requesting additional aid, his army was ambushed at Cibotus (called Civetot by the Crusaders) and all but annihilated by the Turks.
Peter the Hermit's preaching in Germany inspired other groups of Crusaders, who also failed to reach Jerusalem. One of these groups was led by the notorious Count Emicho and was responsible for a series of massacres of Jews in several Rhenish towns in 1096. Traditionally recognized as an important turning point in Jewish and Christian relations in the Middle Ages—in fact, it is often cited as a pivotal moment in the history of anti-Semitism—these attacks occurred first in Speyer and then with increasing ferocity in Worms, Mainz, and Cologne. The Jews of these towns often sought, and sometimes received, the protection of the bishop or futilely took refuge in local homes and temples. Forced by the Crusaders to convert or die, many Jews chose death. There are accounts of Jews' committing suicide and even killing their children rather than converting or submitting to execution by the Crusaders. Though zealotry of this nature is not unique to Christianity, these massacres did not go unnoticed even by fellow Christians. Indeed, some contemporary Christian accounts attributed the defeat of the People's Crusade to them. After the massacres, the Crusaders moved on to Hungary, where they were routed by the Hungarian king and suffered heavy losses. Emicho, who may not have participated in all the pogroms, escaped and returned home in disgrace.
The main Crusading force, which departed in August 1096 as Urban directed, consisted of four major contingents. A smaller, fifth force, led by Hugh of Vermandois, brother of King Philip I of France, left before the others but was reduced by shipwreck while crossing the Adriatic from Bari to Dyrrhachium (now Durrës, Albania). Godfrey of Bouillon, leader of the first large army to depart and duke of Lower Lorraine since 1087, was the only major prince from the German kingdom involved in the Crusade, though he and his associates largely spoke French. Joined by his brothers, Eustace and Baldwin, and a kinsman, Baldwin of Le Bourcq, Godfrey took the land route and crossed Hungary without incident. Markets and provisions were supplied in Byzantine territory, and, except for some pillaging, the army reached Constantinople without serious problems on December 23, 1096.
A second force was organized by Bohemond, a Norman from southern Italy. The son of Robert Guiscard, Bohemond was on familiar ground across the Adriatic, where he had fought with his father and was understandably feared by the Byzantines. However, he was 40 years old when he arrived at Constantinople on April 9, 1097, and determined to come to profitable terms with his former enemy.
The third and largest army was assembled by Raymond of Saint-Gilles, the count of Toulouse. At age 55, he was the oldest and most prominent of the princes on the Crusade, and he aspired and perhaps expected to become the leader of the entire expedition. He was accompanied by Adhémar, bishop of Le Puy, whom the pope had named as legate for the Crusade. Raymond led his followers, including a number of noncombatant pilgrims whom he supported at his own expense, across northern Italy, around the head of the Adriatic, and then southward into Byzantine territory. This large body caused considerable trouble in Dalmatia and clashed with Byzantine troops as it approached the capital, where Raymond arrived on April 21.
Meanwhile, the fourth army, under Robert of Flanders, had crossed the Adriatic from Brindisi. Accompanying Robert were his cousin Robert of Normandy (brother of King William II of England) and Stephen of Blois (the son-in-law of William the Conqueror). No king took part in the First Crusade, and the predominantly French-speaking participants came to be known by the Muslims as Franks.
The presence near Constantinople of massive military forces, numbering perhaps 4,000 mounted knights and 25,000 infantry, posed a serious problem for Alexius, and there was occasional disorder. Forced to consider imperial interests, which, it soon became evident, were different from the objective of the Crusaders, the emperor required each Crusade leader to promise under oath to restore to him any conquered territory that had belonged to the empire before the Turkish invasions and to swear loyalty to him while the Crusaders remained in his domain. Since there was never any plan for the Crusade to go beyond the far-flung borders of the old Roman Empire, this would effectively give all conquests to the emperor. Only Bohemond willingly took the emperor's oath. The others did so under duress, and Raymond swore only a lukewarm oath to respect the property and person of the emperor. Despite this, Raymond and Alexius became good friends, and Raymond remained the strongest defender of the emperor's rights throughout the Crusade.
Late in May 1097 the Crusaders and a contingent of Byzantine soldiers reached the capital of the Turkish sultanate, Nicaea (now İznik, Turkey), which surrendered to the Byzantines on June 19. The Crusade army left Nicaea for Antioch on June 26 and found crossing the arid and mountainous Anatolia difficult. At Dorylaeum on July 1, 1097, Turks attacked the advance column of the Crusader army. Despite the heat and a rain of arrows, the Crusaders held their ground, and, when the rest of the army drew up, the Turks were routed. A major victory in open warfare had been achieved by cooperation between the separate Western contingents and the Greeks.
Further advance across Anatolia was even more arduous, and it was only after suffering many casualties, especially in the region of the Taurus Mountains, that the Crusaders arrived near Antioch on October 20. Meanwhile, Godfrey's brother Baldwin left the main army to involve himself in Armenian politics and then became ruler of Edessa. The first of the Crusader states, the county of Edessa would provide a valuable buffer against Turkish attacks on Antioch and other Christian territories.
One of the great cities of the Levant and one of the patriarchal sees of Christianity, Antioch was surrounded by an enormous circle of walls studded with more than 400 towers. Despite reinforcements and supplies from Genoese and English ships and later from the patriarch of Jerusalem, then in Cyprus, the siege proved long and difficult, and many died of starvation or disease. Spring brought the threat of counterattack by a relief force under Kerbogha of Mosul. The situation seemed so hopeless that some Crusaders deserted and attempted to return home. Among these was Peter the Hermit, who was caught and returned to the host, where he was quietly forgiven. Another deserter was the French knight Stephen of Blois, who was cut off from the main body of the army by Kerbogha's forces and judged, not unreasonably, that the Crusaders were doomed. On his way home Stephen met Alexius, who was marching at the head of a Byzantine relief force, and convinced him that Antioch's cause was hopeless. The emperor's decision to turn back, however justified tactically, was a diplomatic blunder; when the Crusaders learned of the emperor's move, they felt free from any obligation to return the city to him.
Bohemond, meanwhile, proposed that the first to enter the city should have possession of it, provided the emperor did not make an appearance. The Norman had, in fact, already made contact with a discontented commander within, who proceeded to admit him over a section of the walls on June 3, 1098. The other Crusaders followed Bohemond into the dozing city and quickly captured it. Only the citadel held out.
Thus, Antioch was restored to Christian rule. The victory, however, was incomplete. Kerbogha arrived with an enormous Turkish army and completely invested the city, which was already very low on provisions. Once again the situation seemed hopeless. Disagreements between the leaders persisted and were accentuated by arguments over the validity of what had come to be called the Holy Lance, which a Provençal priest found below the cathedral and insisted was the lance that, according to the Gospels, had pierced the side of Jesus Christ when he hung on the cross. Nonetheless, on June 28 the Crusader army moved out of the city. The Turkish forces were not of high quality and had only tenuous loyalty to Kerbogha. When they saw the size of the Crusade forces and the resolve of the men, the Turks began to flee. With the evaporation of Kerbogha's army, the citadel finally surrendered to Bohemond, and its garrison was permitted to leave. Rejoicing was tempered by a devastating epidemic that took many lives, including that of the legate, Adhémar of Le Puy, who, as the spiritual leader of the Crusade, had been a wise counselor and a stabilizing influence whom the leaders could ill afford to lose.
The Crusade leaders then fell into violent disagreement over the final disposition of Antioch. Bohemond, who had been responsible for the capture of the city and then had led its defense, wanted it for himself. Raymond, however, insisted that it be returned to the emperor. Unable to come to terms on Antioch, Bohemond and Raymond refused to march to Jerusalem, which effectively stalled the Crusade. The leaders agreed to depart only after the rank and file threatened to tear down the walls of Antioch. On January 13, 1099, the army then set out for Jerusalem under the leadership of Raymond of Saint-Gilles. As they moved south, Tancred and Robert of Normandy and, later, Godfrey and Robert of Flanders joined them. Bohemond, ignoring his previous oaths, remained in Antioch.
Not far from Beirut, the army entered the territory of the Fāṭimid caliphs of Cairo, who, as Shīʿite Muslims, were enemies of the Sunnite Seljuqs and the caliphs of Baghdad. In August 1098 the Fāṭimids had occupied Jerusalem. The final drive of the First Crusade, therefore, was against the Fāṭimids of Egypt, not the Seljuqs.
On June 7, 1099, the Christian army—by then considerably reduced to perhaps 1,200–1,500 cavalry and 12,000 foot soldiers—encamped before Jerusalem, whose governor was well supplied and confident that he could withstand a siege until a relief force arrived from Egypt. The Crusaders, on the other hand, were short of supplies and would be until six vessels arrived at Jaffa (Yafo) and managed to unload before the port was blockaded by an Egyptian squadron. On July 8 a strict fast was ordered, and, with the Muslims scoffing from the walls, the entire army, preceded by the clergy, marched in solemn procession around the city, thence to the Mount of Olives, where Peter the Hermit preached with his former eloquence.
Siege towers were carried up to the walls on July 13–14, and on July 15 Godfrey's men took a sector of the walls, and others followed on scaling ladders. When the nearest gate was opened, Tancred and Raymond entered, and the Muslim governor surrendered to the latter in the Tower of David. The governor, along with his bodyguard, was escorted out of the city. Tancred promised protection in the Aqṣā Mosque, but his orders were disobeyed. Hundreds of men, women, and children, both Muslim and Jewish, perished in the general slaughter that followed.
The Crusaders, therefore, attained their goal three long years after they had set out. Against the odds this struggling, fractious, and naive enterprise had made its way from western Europe to the Middle East and conquered two of the best-defended cities of the time. From a modern perspective, the improbability of the First Crusade's success is staggering. For medieval men and women, though, the agent of victory was God himself, who worked miracle after miracle for his faithful knights. It was this firm belief that would sustain centuries of Crusading.
A successful surprise attack on the Egyptian relief army ensured the Crusaders' occupation of Palestine. Having fulfilled their vows of pilgrimage, most of the Crusaders departed for home, leaving the problem of governing the conquered territories to the few who remained. Initially, there was disagreement concerning the nature of the government to be established, and some held that the holy city should be ruled under ecclesiastical authority. As an interim measure, Godfrey was elected to govern and took the modest title of Defender of the Holy Sepulchre.
In December 1099, in the midst of this confused situation, Bohemond and Baldwin of Edessa arrived in Jerusalem to fulfill their Crusader vows. Accompanying Bohemond was Daimbert, the archbishop of Pisa, who was chosen patriarch and received the homage of both Godfrey and Baldwin. If Daimbert had ambitions to govern Jerusalem, they were thwarted when, on Godfrey's death, his brother Baldwin was summoned back to Jerusalem, where he assumed the title of king (November 11, 1100). Thus, there had come into being not a church state but a feudal kingdom of Jerusalem.
Securing the new Christian territories was now of utmost concern. The Crusade of 1101, for example, was organized by Pope Paschal II to reinforce Christian rule in the Holy Land, but it collapsed in Asia Minor. King Baldwin, however, profited nonetheless from the chronic rivalries of his Muslim neighbours. He was also able to extend his control along the coastline with the aid of Italians and in one instance of a Norwegian squadron that arrived under King Sigurd in 1110. By 1112 Arsuf, Caesarea, Acre, Beirut, and Sidon had been taken, and the entire coast except for Ascalon and Tyre was in Latin hands.
Meanwhile, castles had been built in Galilee, the frontier pushed southward, and Crusader states formed in the north. The county of Edessa, an ill-defined domain extending into the upper Euphrates region with a population consisting mainly of Armenians and Syrians, had already been established by Godfrey's brother Baldwin. When Baldwin left to become ruler of Jerusalem, he bestowed the county, under his suzerainty, on his cousin Baldwin of Le Bourcq.
Antioch had not been returned to the emperor, and Bohemond had consolidated his position there. The city was predominantly Greek in population, though there were also Syrians and Armenians, and the latent Greek-Latin friction was intensified when Bohemond replaced the Greek patriarch with a Latin one. When Bohemond was captured by the Muslims in 1100, his nephew Tancred became regent and expanded the frontiers of the principality to include the important port of Latakia, taken from the Byzantines in 1103. Not long after his release in 1103, Bohemond traveled to Europe, where he succeeded in winning over Pope Paschal II to the idea of a new Crusade. Whatever the original intention, there resulted not an expedition against Muslims but an attack on the Byzantine city of Dyrrhachium. Like its predecessor, the ill-fated campaign of 1082, the enterprise failed, and in 1108 Bohemond was forced to take an oath of vassalage to the emperor for Antioch and to return to Italy, where he died in 1111. Tancred, again in power, ignored his uncle's oath, and Antioch and its patriarchate remained a source of controversy.
A fourth Crusader state was established on the coast in the vicinity of Tripoli (Arabic Tarābulus) by Raymond of Saint-Gilles, who had been outmaneuvered in Jerusalem and had returned to Constantinople hoping for aid from the Byzantine emperor, to whom he had always been loyal. In 1102 he returned to Syria, took Tortosa (Ṭarṭūs), and began the siege of Tripoli. But he died in 1105, and it remained for his descendants to finish the task in 1109.
The establishment and protection of the frontier was, for the new states, a problem conditioned by geography and the politics of Levantine Islam. From Antioch south, the Crusaders held a narrow strip of coastland bounded by mountains to the north and by the Jordan Valley in the south. To the east beyond the Syrian desert lay the Muslim cities of Aleppo, Ḥamāh, Ḥimṣ, and Damascus. Though the Franks did push southward to Aylah (or Elim, modern Al-ʿAqabah), all attempts to move eastward failed, and it was necessary to erect castles at vulnerable points along the eastern frontier as well as along the coast and inland. Among the most famous of these were Krak de Montréal, in the Transjordan, and Krak des Chevaliers, in the county of Tripoli. Meanwhile, the hostility between Shīʿite Egypt and Sunnite Baghdad continued for some time. The emirates in between the two powers remained divided in their allegiance, and those in the north feared the Seljuqs of Iconium.
After Baldwin I's death in 1118, the throne passed to his cousin Baldwin of Le Bourcq (Baldwin II), who left Edessa to another cousin, Joscelin of Courtenay. In 1124 Tyre, the last great city north of Ascalon still in Muslim hands, was taken with the aid of the Venetians, who, as was customary, received a section of the city. Baldwin II was succeeded by Fulk of Anjou, a newcomer recommended by Louis VI of France. Fulk was married to Baldwin's daughter Melisende. In 1131 Baldwin and Joscelin both died. They were the last of the first generation of Crusaders, and with their passing the formative period in the history of the Crusader states came to an end.
Fulk's policies ended the pursuit of expansion and resulted in a stabilization of the frontiers of the Crusader states. This was a wise course, because his reign coincided with the rise of Zangī, atabeg (Turkish: “governor”) of Mosul, whose achievements earned him a reputation as a great champion of the jihad (holy war) against the Franks. When Zangī moved against Damascus, the Muslims of that city and the Christians of Jerusalem formed an alliance against their common enemy, a diplomatic initiative that was common among the second-generation Franks.
The northern Crusader states, however, were in great danger. The Byzantines had recovered their influence in Anatolia and were putting pressure on Armenia and Antioch. Emperor Manuel Comnenus forced Prince Raymond of Antioch to acknowledge imperial suzerainty. But the greater danger to both Antioch and Armenia was dramatically brought home by Zangī's capture of Edessa in 1144. Attempts at recovery failed, and the northernmost Crusader state was subsequently overrun.
It had long been apparent that Edessa was vulnerable, but its loss came as a shock to Eastern and Western Christians. Urgent pleas for aid soon reached Europe, and in 1145 Pope Eugenius III issued a formal Crusade bull, Quantum praedecessores (“How Much Our Predecessors”). It was the first of its kind, with precisely worded provisions designed to protect Crusaders' families and property and reflecting contemporary advances in canon law. The Crusade was preached by St. Bernard of Clairvaux in France and, with the aid of interpreters, even in Germany. Bernard revolutionized Crusade ideology, asserting that the Crusade was not merely an act of charity or a war to secure the holy places but a means of redemption. In his mercy, Christ offered the warriors of Europe a blessed avenue of salvation, a means by which they could give up all they had to follow him.
As in the First Crusade, many simple pilgrims responded. Unlike the First Crusade, however, the Second Crusade was led by two of Europe's greatest rulers, King Louis VII of France and Emperor Conrad III of Germany. Louis enthusiastically supported the Crusade, but Conrad was reluctant at first and was won over only by the eloquence of St. Bernard. The Second Crusade also differed from its predecessor in that there were three objectives instead of one. While the kings of Germany and France marched east to restore Edessa, other Crusaders went to Spain to fight Muslims or to the shores of the Baltic Sea to fight the pagan Wends.
The situation in the East was also different. Manuel Comnenus, the Byzantine emperor, was not pleased to discover another Crusade headed toward Constantinople. The Second Crusade wreaked havoc with his foreign policy, which included an alliance with Germany, Venice, and the pope against the Normans. It also complicated the emperor's peaceful relationship with the Turkish sultan of Rūm. Manuel made a truce with the sultan in 1146 to make certain that the Crusade would not cause the sultan to attack Byzantine lands in Asia. Although sound strategically, the emperor's move confirmed for many Western Christians the apostasy of the Greeks.
Conrad left in May 1147, accompanied by many German nobles, the kings of Poland and Bohemia, and Frederick of Swabia, his nephew and the future emperor Frederick I (Frederick Barbarossa). Conrad's poorly disciplined troops created tension in Constantinople, where they arrived in September. Conrad and Manuel, however, remained on good terms, and both were apprehensive about the moves of King Roger II of Sicily, who during these same weeks seized Corfu and attacked the Greek mainland.
Conrad, rejecting Manuel's advice to follow the coastal route around Asia Minor, moved his main force past Nicaea directly into Anatolia. On October 25 at Dorylaeum, not far from where the First Crusaders won their victory, his army, weary and without adequate provisions, was set upon by the Turks and virtually destroyed. Conrad, with a few survivors, retreated to Nicaea.
Louis VII, accompanied by his wife, Eleanor of Aquitaine, followed the land route across Europe and arrived at Constantinople on October 4, about a month after the Germans. A few of his more hotheaded followers, on hearing that Manuel had made a truce with the Turks of Iconium and totally misunderstanding his motives, accused the emperor of treason and urged the French king to join Roger in attacking the Byzantines. Louis preferred the opinion of his less-volatile advisers and agreed to restore any imperial possessions he might capture.
In November the French reached Nicaea, where they learned of Conrad's defeat. Louis and Conrad then started along the coastal route, with the French now in the vanguard, and reached Ephesus. Conrad became seriously ill and returned to Constantinople to the medical ministrations of Manuel. After recuperating, he eventually reached Acre by ship in April 1148.
The French passage from Ephesus to Antioch in midwinter was extremely harrowing. Supplies ran short, and the Byzantines were unjustly blamed. Manuel defended his cities against the angry Crusaders, which meant that the French spent more energy fighting Christians than Muslims. Louis concluded that the Greeks were trying to weaken the Crusade. He also had lost the bulk of his troops to Turkish attacks by the time he reached Antioch, which was ruled by Eleanor's uncle, Prince Raymond. The Crusade's original goal of recapturing Edessa was no longer feasible, because Nūr al-Dīn, the son and successor of Zangī, had massacred the city's Christian inhabitants, making it difficult to take and hold Edessa with the forces available. Raymond urged an attack on Aleppo, Nūr al-Dīn's centre of power. But King Louis, who resented Eleanor's open espousal of Raymond's project, left abruptly for Jerusalem and forced the queen to join him.
In Jerusalem, where Conrad had already arrived, many French and German notables assembled with Queen Melisende, her son Baldwin III, and the barons of Jerusalem to discuss how best to proceed. Despite the absence of the northern princes and the losses already suffered by the Crusaders, it was possible to field an army of nearly 50,000 men, the largest Crusade army so far assembled. After considerable debate, which revealed the conflicting purposes of Crusaders and Jerusalem barons, it was decided to attack Damascus.
How the decision was reached is not known. Damascus was undoubtedly a tempting prize. Its ruler, Unur, fearful of the expanding power of Nūr al-Dīn, was the one Muslim ruler most disposed to cooperating with the Franks. However, Unur was now forced to seek the aid of his former enemy to thwart them. And Nūr al-Dīn was not slow to move toward Damascus. Not only was the Crusader campaign poorly conceived, but it was badly executed. On July 28, after a four-day siege, with Nūr al-Dīn's forces nearing the city, it became evident that the Crusader army was dangerously exposed, and a retreat was ordered. It was a humiliating failure, attributable largely to the conflicting interests of the participants.
Conrad decamped for Constantinople, where he agreed to join the emperor against Roger of Sicily. Louis's reaction was different. His resentment against Manuel, whom he blamed for the failure, was so great that he accepted Roger's offer of ships to take him home and agreed to a plan for a new Crusade against Byzantium. Lacking papal support, the plan came to nothing, but the perception that the Byzantines were part of the problem rather than the solution became widespread in Europe.
The Second Crusade had been promoted with great zeal and had aroused high hopes. Its collapse caused deep dismay. Searching for an explanation, St. Bernard turned to Scripture and preached that the Crusade failed because of the sinfulness of Europe. Only through the purification and prayers of Christian men and women would God relent and bestow victory on his knights once more. This belief became central to Crusading ideology and an important impetus for movements of lay piety during the Middle Ages. The Muslims, on the other hand, were enormously encouraged by the collapse of the Second Crusade because they had confronted the danger of another major Western expedition and had triumphed.
During the 25 years following the Second Crusade, the kingdom of Jerusalem was governed by two of its ablest rulers, Baldwin III (reigned 1143–62) and Amalric I (1163–74). In 1153 King Baldwin captured Ascalon, extending the kingdom's coastline southward, though this would be the Franks' last major conquest. Its possession was offset the next year by the occupation of Damascus by Nūr al-Dīn, one more stage in the encirclement of the Crusader states by a single Muslim power.
In 1160–61 the possibility that the Fāṭimid caliphate in Egypt, shaken by palace intrigues and assassinations, might collapse under the influence of Muslim Syria caused anxiety in Jerusalem. Thus, in 1164, when Nūr al-Dīn sent his lieutenant Shīrkūh to Egypt accompanied by his own nephew, Saladin, King Amalric decided to intervene. After some maneuvering, the armies of both Amalric and Shīrkūh withdrew, as they were to do again three years later.
Meanwhile, Amalric, realizing the necessity of Byzantine cooperation, had sent Archbishop William of Tyre as an envoy to Constantinople. In 1168, before the news of the agreement that William of Tyre had arranged reached Jerusalem, the king, for reasons unknown, set out for Egypt. The venture failed, and Shīrkūh entered Cairo. On his death (May 23, 1169), Saladin, then Nūr al-Dīn's deputy, was left to overcome the remaining opposition and assume control of Egypt.
When the Byzantine fleet and the army finally arrived in 1169, there was some delay, and both armies were forced by inadequate provisions and seasonal rains to retreat once again, each side blaming the other for the lack of confrontation. In 1171 Saladin obeyed Nūr al-Dīn's order to have the prayers in the mosques mention the caliph of Baghdad instead of the caliph of Cairo, whose health was failing. Thus ended the Fāṭimid caliphate and the great division in Levantine Islam from which the Latins had profited.
Ominous developments followed the deaths of both Amalric and Nūr al-Dīn in 1174. In 1176 the Seljuqs of Iconium defeated the armies of Emperor Manuel Comnenus at Myriocephalon. It was a shattering blow reminiscent of Manzikert a century earlier. When Manuel died in 1180, all hope of effective Byzantine-Latin cooperation vanished. Three years later Saladin occupied Aleppo, virtually completing the encirclement of the Latin states. In 1185 he agreed to a truce and left for Egypt.
In Jerusalem Amalric was succeeded by his son Baldwin IV, a 13-year-old boy suffering from leprosy. Despite the young king's extraordinary fortitude, his precarious health necessitated continuous regencies and created a problem of succession until his sister Sibyl bore a son, the future Baldwin V, to William of Montferrat. Her subsequent marriage in 1180 to Guy of Lusignan, a newcomer to the East and brother of Amalric, accentuated existing rivalries between the barons. A kind of “court party”—centring around the queen mother, Agnes of Courtenay, her daughter Sibyl, and Agnes's brother, Joscelin III of Edessa, and now including the Lusignans—was often opposed by another group comprising mostly the so-called native barons—old families, notably the Ibelins, Reginald of Sidon, and Raymond III of Tripoli, who through his wife was also lord of Tiberias. In addition to these internal problems, the kingdom was the most isolated ever. Urgent appeals to the West and the efforts of Pope Alexander III had brought little response.
Baldwin IV died in March 1185, leaving, according to previous agreement, Raymond of Tripoli as regent for the child king Baldwin V. But when Baldwin V died in 1186, the court party outmaneuvered the other barons and, disregarding succession arrangements that had been formally drawn up, hastily crowned Sibyl. She in turn crowned her husband, Guy of Lusignan.
In the midst of near civil war, Reginald of Châtillon, lord of Kerak and Montréal, broke the truce with the Muslims by attacking a caravan. Saladin replied by proclaiming jihad against the Latin kingdom. In 1187 he left Egypt, crossed the Jordan south of the Sea of Galilee, and took up a position close to the river. Near Sepphoris (modern Ẓippori) the Crusaders mobilized an army of perhaps 20,000 men, which included some 1,200 heavily armed cavalry. In a spot well chosen and adequately supplied with water and provisions, they waited for Saladin—who, by some estimates, had about 30,000 men, half of whom were light cavalry—to make the first move.
On July 2 Saladin blocked the main road to Tiberias and sent a small force to attack the town, hoping that Count Raymond's wife's presence there would lure the Crusaders into the open. It was Raymond, however, who initially persuaded the king not to fall into the trap. But, late that night, others, accusing the count of treason, prevailed upon the king to change his mind. This fateful decision would lead to the destruction of the Crusader army. On July 3 the Crusaders undertook an exhausting day's march, spent a terrible night without water, and were surrounded and constantly harassed. The following day they faced Saladin's forces at the Horns of Ḥaṭṭin and fought throughout the day, with smoke from grass fires set by the enemy pouring into their faces. When the infantry broke ranks, the essential coordination with the cavalry was shattered, and the Crusaders' fate was sealed. By the time Saladin's final charge ended the battle, most of the knights had been slain or captured. Only Raymond of Tripoli, Reginald of Sidon, Balian of Ibelin, and a few others escaped.
The king's life was spared, but Saladin killed Reginald of Châtillon and ordered the execution of some 200 Templars and Hospitallers (religio-military orders discussed below). Other captive knights were treated honourably, and most were later ransomed. Less fortunate were the foot soldiers, most of whom were sold into slavery. Virtually the entire military force of the kingdom of Jerusalem had been destroyed. To make matters worse, Saladin captured the relic of the True Cross, which he sent to Damascus, where it was paraded through the streets upside down.
Saladin quickly followed up his victory in the Battle of Ḥaṭṭin by taking Tiberias and moving toward the coast to seize Acre (ʿAkko). By September 1187 he and his lieutenants had occupied most of the major strongholds in the kingdom and all the ports south of Tripoli Jubayl and Botron (Al-Batrūn) in the county of Tripoli and Tyre in the kingdom. On October 2 Jerusalem, then defended by only a handful of men under the command of Balian of Ibelin, capitulated to Saladin, who agreed to allow the inhabitants to leave once they had paid a ransom. Though Saladin's offer included the poor, several thousand apparently were not redeemed and probably were sold into slavery. In Jerusalem, as in most of the cities captured, those who stayed were Syrian or Greek Christians. Somewhat later Saladin permitted a number of Jews to settle in the city.
Meanwhile, Saladin continued his conquests in the north, and by 1189 all of the kingdom was in his hands except Belvoir (modern Kokhov ha-Yarden) and Tyre. The county of Tripoli and the principality of Antioch were each reduced to the capital city and a few outposts. The majority of the 100-year-old Latin establishment in the Levant had been lost.
The four principalities established by the Crusaders—three after the loss of Edessa in 1144—were loosely connected, and the king of Jerusalem's limited suzerainty over Antioch and Tripoli became largely nominal after mid century. Each state was organized into a pattern of lordships by the ruling Christian minority. The institutions of the kingdom of Jerusalem are best known, partly because its history figures more prominently in both Arab and Christian chronicles but especially because its documents were better preserved. In the 13th century the famous legal compilation the Assises de Jérusalem (Assizes of Jerusalem) was prepared in the kingdom. Though this collection reflects a later situation, certain sections and many individual enactments can be traced back to the 12th century, the period known as the First Kingdom.
In the first half of the 12th century, the kingdom presented the appearance of a typical European monarchy, with lordships owing military service and subject to fiscal exactions. There were, however, important differences, not only in the large subject population of diverse ethnic origins but also with respect to the governing minority. No great families with extensive domains emerged in the early years, and the typical noble did not, as in Europe, live in a rural castle or manor house. Although castles existed, they were garrisoned by knights and, increasingly as the century advanced, by the religio-military orders. Most barons in the kingdom lived in the fortified towns. The kings, moreover, possessed a considerable domain and retained extensive judicial rights, which made the monarchy a relatively strong institution in early Jerusalem.
Toward the middle of the century, this situation changed. Partly as a consequence of increased immigration from the West, the baronial class grew, and a relatively small group of magnates with large domains emerged. As individuals, they were less disposed to brook royal interference, and as a class and in the court of barons (Haute Cour, or High Court), they were capable of presenting a formidable challenge to royal authority. The last of the kings of Jerusalem to exercise effective power was Amalric I in the 12th century. In the final years of the First Kingdom, baronial influence was increasingly evident and dissension among the barons, as a consequence, more serious.
Another serious obstacle to the king's jurisdiction, which did not exist in the same form in the West, was the extensive authority of the two religio-military orders. The Knights of the Hospital of St. John, or Hospitallers, was founded in the 11th century by the merchants of Amalfi to provide hospital care for pilgrims. The order never abandoned its original purpose, and, in fact, as its superb collection of documents reveals, the order's philanthropic activities expanded. But during the 12th century, in response to the military needs of the kingdom, the Hospitallers also became an order of knights, as did the Templars, the Poor Knights of Christ and of the Temple of Solomon, so named because of their headquarters in the former temple of Solomon. The Templars originated as a monastic-military organization dedicated to protecting pilgrims on the way to Jerusalem, and their rule, composed by St. Bernard of Clairvaux, was officially sanctioned by the Council of Troyes (1128). Although the Templars and Hospitallers took monastic vows, their principal function was soldiering.
The orders grew rapidly and acquired castles at strategic points in the kingdom and in the northern states. They maintained permanent garrisons in these castles and supplemented the otherwise inadequate forces of the barons and king. Moreover, because they were soon established in Europe as well, they became international organizations. Virtually independent, sanctioned and constantly supported by the papacy, and exempt from local ecclesiastical jurisdiction, they aroused the jealousy of the clergy and constituted a serious challenge to royal authority.
The Crusaders introduced into the conquered lands a Latin ecclesiastical organization and hierarchy. The Greek patriarch of Antioch was removed, and all subsequent incumbents were Latin except in one brief period before 1170, when imperial pressure brought about the installation of a Greek. The Orthodox patriarch in Jerusalem left before the conquest and died soon after. All his successors were Latin.
Under Latin jurisdiction were the entire Latin population, as well as those natives who remained Orthodox—Greeks in Antioch and Greeks or Syrians (Melchites) in Jerusalem. Beyond that jurisdiction were a larger number of Monophysites (Jacobites or Armenians) and some few Nestorians, all adherents of doctrines that had deviated from the decisions of 5th-century ecumenical councils. A number of Maronites of the Lebanon region accepted the Latin obedience late in the 12th century. After some initial confusion, the native hierarchies were able to resume their functions.
As in the West, the church had its own courts and possessed large properties. But each ecclesiastical domain was required to furnish soldiers, and there were considerable charitable foundations. The hierarchy of the Latin states was an integral part of the church of the West. Papal legates regularly visited the East, and bishops from the Crusader states attended the third Lateran Council in 1179. Western monastic orders also appeared in the Crusader states.
In addition to the nobles and their families who had settled in the kingdom, a substantially larger number of persons were classified as bourgeois. A small number had arrived with the First Crusade; however, most were later immigrants from Europe, representing nearly every nationality but predominantly from rural southern France. In the East they became town dwellers, though a few were agriculturalists—proprietors of small estates, rarely themselves tillers of the soil, inhabiting the more modest towns. It appears some immigrants, perhaps poor pilgrims who remained, failed to obtain a reasonably settled status and could not afford the relatively small ransom offered by Saladin in 1187.
The townspeople of the First Kingdom did not, like their counterparts in Europe, aspire to political autonomy. There were no communal movements in the 12th century. The bourgeois were, therefore, subject to a king or seigneur. Some did military service as sergeants—i.e., mounted auxiliaries or foot soldiers. The bourgeois were recognized as a class in the more than 30 “courts of the bourgeois” according to procedures laid down in the Assises de la Cour des Bourgeois (Assizes of the Court of the Bourgeois), which, unlike other parts of the Assizes of Jerusalem, reflect the traditions of Roman law in southern France.
The Italians had acquired exceptional privileges in the ports because they supplied the indispensable naval aid and shipping essential to regular contact with Europe. These privileges usually included a quarter that they maintained as a virtually independent enclave. Its status was guaranteed by treaty between the kingdom and the “mother” city (Venice, Genoa, Pisa, etc.).
European settlers in the Crusader states, however, were only a small minority of the population. If the early Crusaders were ruthless, their successors, except for occasional outbursts during campaigns, were remarkably tolerant and flexible in dealing with the diverse sectors of the local population. Muslim town dwellers who had not fled were captured and put to menial tasks. Some, it is true, appeared in Italian slave marts, but royal and ecclesiastical ordinances at least restricted slave owners' actions. Baptism brought with it immediate freedom.
Few Muslims were slaves. Most of those who remained were peasants who for centuries had been a large part of the rural population and who were permitted to retain their holdings, subject to fiscal impositions not unlike those of the European serf and usually identical to those originally levied by their former proprietors on all non-Muslims. Muslim nomads, or Bedouin, who from time immemorial had moved their herds with the changing seasons, were granted their traditional rights of pasturage by the king.
Most mosques were appropriated during the conquest, but some were restored, and no attempt was made to restrict Muslim religious observance. Occasionally a mihrab (prayer niche) was retained for Muslim worshipers in a church that had formerly been a mosque. The tolerance of the Franks, noted by Arab visitors, often surprised and disturbed newcomers from the West.
Legal practices
Native Christians were governed according to the Assizes of the Court of the Bourgeois. Each national group retained its institutions. The Syrians, for example, maintained a court overseen by the rais (raʾīs), a chieftain of importance under the Frankish regime. An important element in the kingdom's army, the corps of Turcopoles, made up of lightly armed cavalry units, was composed largely of native Christians, including, apparently, converts from Islam. The principle of personality of law applied to all: the Jew took oath on the Torah, the Samaritan on the Pentateuch, the Muslim on the Qurʾān, and the Christian on the Gospels.
The Jewish community of Palestine, which had declined in the 11th century, was drastically reduced by the First Crusade. As the Latin kingdom settled into a routine of government, however, the situation improved. Indeed, there is reason to believe that the later, more stable regime made possible a not-inconsiderable Jewish immigration—not, it seems, as in earlier times, from the neighbouring lands of the Middle East but from Europe.
Thus, by the 1170s the Crusader states of Outremer, as the area of Latin settlement came to be called, had developed well-established governments. With allowance made for regional differences (e.g., Antioch in its early years under the Norman dynasty was somewhat more centralized), the institutions of the northern states resembled those of Jerusalem. The governing class of Franks was no longer made up of foreign conquerors but comprised local residents who had learned to adjust to a new environment and were concerned with administration. A few—such as Reginald of Sidon and William of Tyre, the archbishop and chancellor, respectively—were fluent in Arabic. Many others knew enough of the language to deal with the local inhabitants. Franks adopted native dress, ate native food, employed native physicians, and married Syrian, Armenian, or converted Muslim women.
But the Franks of Outremer, though they sometimes acquired a love of luxury and comfort, did not lose the will or ability to confront danger; nor did they “go native.” In fundamentals, they were Latin Christians who adhered to the traditions of their French forebears. The Assizes were in French, and other documents were drawn up in Latin. William of Tyre, born in the East but educated in Europe, wrote a celebrated Historia rerum in partibus transmarinis gestarum (History of Deeds Done Beyond the Sea) in the Latin style of the 12th century.
Artists and architects were influenced by Byzantine and Arab craftsmen, but Oriental motifs were usually limited to details, such as doorway carvings. A psalter for Queen Melisende in the 12th century, for example, shows certain Byzantine characteristics, and the artist may have lived in Constantinople, but the manuscript is in the then current tradition of French art. Castles followed Byzantine models and were often built on the old foundations, though Western ideas were also incorporated. New churches were built or additions made to existing structures, as, for example, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, in the Romanesque style of the homeland.
All in all, the Franks of the First Kingdom developed a distinctive culture and achieved a sense of identity. Until baronial dissensions weakened the monarchy in later years, the Latin kingdom showed remarkable vitality and ingenuity. It was one of the more sophisticated governmental achievements of the Middle Ages.
The Third Crusade
The news of the fall of Jerusalem reached Europe even before the arrival there of Archbishop Josius of Tyre, whom the Crusaders had sent with urgent appeals for aid. Pope Urban III soon died, shocked, it was said, by the sad news. His successor, Gregory VIII, issued a Crusade bull and called for fasting and penitence.
Before a new Crusade could be organized, however, a modest recovery had begun in the East. Scarcely two weeks after Ḥaṭṭin, Conrad of Montferrat, Baldwin V's uncle, had landed at Tyre with a small Italian fleet and a number of followers. He immediately established himself sufficiently to stave off an attack by Saladin. Conrad also refused to submit to King Guy when Saladin released the king at the end of 1188 as promised.
In a daring move to reestablish his authority, Guy suddenly gathered his few followers and besieged Acre, taking Saladin completely by surprise. When the Muslim leader finally moved his army toward the city, the Crusaders camped outside had begun to receive reinforcements from the West, many under the banner of Henry of Champagne. By the winter of 1190–91, neither side had made progress; Saladin could not relieve the city, but the Crusaders had suffered losses from disease and famine.
Among the victims of disease was Guy's wife, Sibyl, the source of his claims to the throne. Many of the older barons who had thus far supported him now turned to Conrad. The marriage of Sibyl's sister, Isabel, to Humphrey of Toron was forthwith annulled, and she was constrained to marry Conrad. But Guy refused to abandon his claim to the throne. Such was the situation in May 1191 when ships arrived off Acre bringing welcome supplies and news of the approach of the armies of the Third Crusade.
The first ruler to respond to the papal appeal was William II of Sicily, who immediately abandoned a conflict with Byzantium and equipped a fleet that soon left for the East, though William himself died in November 1189. English, Danish, and Flemish ships also departed. Meanwhile, Gregory VIII had sent a legation to the Holy Roman emperor and participant in the Second Crusade, Frederick Barbarossa, now nearly 70 years old and approaching the end of an eventful career. Although excommunicated by Pope Alexander III and a supporter of antipopes in the 1160s and '70s, Frederick had made peace with the church in 1177 and for some time had been genuinely desirous of going on Crusade again.
He set out in May 1189 with the largest Crusade army so far assembled and crossed Hungary into Byzantine territory. The Byzantine emperor, Isaac II Angelus, had made a secret treaty with Saladin to impede Frederick's progress through Greece, which he did quite effectively. Frederick responded by capturing the Byzantine city of Adrianople, returning it only when Isaac agreed to transport the Germans across the Hellespont into Turkey. In May 1190 Frederick reached Iconium after defeating a Seljuq army. His forces then crossed into Armenian territory. On June 10 Frederick, who had ridden ahead with his bodyguard, was drowned while attempting to swim a stream. His death broke the morale of the German army, and only a small remnant, under Frederick of Swabia and Leopold of Austria, finally reached Tyre. To Saladin and the Muslims, who had been seriously alarmed by Frederick's approach, the emperor's death seemed an act of God.
In Europe, Archbishop Josius had won over Philip II Augustus of France and Henry II of England, whose son and successor, Richard I (Richard the Lion-Heart), took up the cause when Henry died in 1189. The extensive holdings of the English Angevin kings in France and especially Philip's desire to recover Normandy, however, posed problems that were difficult to lay aside even during a common enterprise. Thus, it was not until July 4, 1190, three years after Ḥaṭṭin, that the English and French rulers met at Vézelay and prepared to move with their armies.
The two kings who finally led the Third Crusade were very different persons. Richard had opposed his father and was distrustful of his brothers. He could be lavishly generous even to his adversaries but often violent to anyone who stood in his way. His abilities lay not in administration, for which he had no talent, but in war, at which he was a genius. The favourite son of Eleanor of Aquitaine, Richard epitomized the chivalrous Crusader and personified the contemporary troubadour's view of war with all its aristocratic courtoisie. Richard could honour his noble Muslim opponents but be utterly ruthless to lowborn captives.
Unlike Richard, Philip II had been king for 10 years and was a skilled and unscrupulous politician. He had no love for ostentation. Though no warrior himself, he was adept at planning sieges and designing siege engines. But he was a reluctant Crusader whose real interests lay in the expansion of his own domains.
At the suggestion of King William II, Richard and Philip met at Messina, in Sicily, where they signed an agreement outlining their mutual obligations and rights on the Crusade. Philip arrived with the French fleet at Acre on April 20, 1191, and the siege was begun again in earnest.
After a stormy passage, Richard put in at Cyprus, where his sister Joan and his fiancée, Berengaria of Navarra, had been shipwrecked and held by the island's Byzantine ruler, a rebel prince, Isaac Comnenus. Isaac underestimated Richard's strength and attacked. Not only did Richard defeat and capture him, but he proceeded to conquer Cyprus, an important event in the history of the Crusades. The island would remain under direct Latin rule for the next four centuries and would be a vital source of supplies throughout the Third Crusade and beyond. Even after the fall of the Crusader states, Cyprus remained a Christian outpost in the East.
Richard left Cyprus and arrived on June 8 at Acre, where he reinvigorated the siege. A month later, after constant battering at the walls by siege engines and after Saladin's nephew had failed to fight his way into the city, the garrison surrendered in violation of Saladin's orders. The Muslim leader was shocked by the news but nevertheless ratified the surrender agreement. In exchange for the lives of the Muslim garrison, he agreed to return the True Cross, render 200,000 dinars, and release all his Christian prisoners—still more than 1,000 men.
As the Crusaders entered the city, disputes arose over the disposal of areas. Richard offended Leopold of Austria, and Philip, who felt that he had fulfilled his Crusader's vow and who was unwell, left for home in August. Though the English and French troops resented Philip's departure, it did leave Richard in control. When Saladin failed to pay the first installment of the ransom for the prisoners on schedule, Richard flew into a rage. He ordered that all 2,700 members of the Muslim garrison be marched outside the city and executed in view of Saladin and his army. Saladin responded by massacring most of his Christian hostages. Clearly, the deal was off.
The first and only pitched battle between the forces of Saladin and the Third Crusade occurred on September 7, 1191, at Arsuf. Richard's military brilliance won the day, forcing Saladin to retreat with heavy losses, while the English king's casualties were very light. After Arsuf, Saladin decided not to risk open battle with Richard again, who quickly recaptured Jaffa and established it as his base of operations. Richard next reestablished Christian control of the coast and refortified Ascalon to the south. Twice Richard led the Crusaders to Jerusalem, yet on both occasions he was forced to retreat after coming within sight of the holy city. Without control of the hinterland, the king knew that he could not hold Jerusalem for long. Although tactically sound, Richard's refusal to lay siege to the city was bitterly unpopular among the rank and file. As a result, his suggestion that the Crusade attack Saladin's power base in Egypt was rejected by most of the Crusaders.
After Philip returned to France, he preyed upon Richard's lands; though forbidden by the church, these actions were lucrative nonetheless. Richard received urgent messages from home requesting his return. Meanwhile, he had been in constant communication with Saladin and his brother al-ʿĀdil, and various peace proposals were made, which included marriage alliances. In fact, there seemed to be warm cordiality and considerable mutual respect between Richard and Saladin. Finally, on September 2, 1192, the two signed a three-year peace treaty. The coast from Jaffa north remained in Christian hands, but Ascalon was to be restored to Saladin after Richard's men demolished the fortifications that they had painstakingly built. Pilgrims were to have free access to the holy places. On October 9 Richard left. He was shipwrecked and finally fell into the hands of Leopold of Austria, who had not forgotten the slight at Acre.
The Third Crusade had failed to attain its main objective, the retaking of Jerusalem, but in every other way it was a great success. Most of Saladin's victories in the wake of Ḥaṭṭin were wiped away. Before he left, Richard consented to the request that Guy, who had lost the support of nearly all the barons, be deposed and Conrad immediately be accepted as king. No sooner was this done than Conrad was murdered by the Assassins, members of the Nazārī Ismāʿīlite sect of Islam. Isabel was persuaded to marry Henry of Champagne, and Guy was given the governorship of Cyprus, where his record was far more successful than his ill-starred career in Jerusalem. Although he had failed to recapture Jerusalem, Richard had put the Christians of the Levant back on their feet.
The Latin East after the Third Crusade
Saladin died on March 3, 1193, not long after the departure of the Third Crusade. One of the greatest Muslim leaders, a man devoutly religious and deeply committed to jihad against the infidel, he was, nevertheless, respected by his opponents. His death led once again to divisions in the Muslim world, and his Ayyūbid successors were willing to continue a state of truce with the Crusaders, which lasted into the early years of the 13th century. The truce was politically and economically advantageous for both sides, and the Italians were quick to make profitable trade connections in Egypt. The Franks were able to adjust to the new situation and to organize what in effect was a new titular kingdom of Jerusalem, centring on Acre and generally known as the Second Kingdom.
In 1194 Amalric of Lusignan succeeded his brother Guy as ruler of Cyprus, where he later accepted investiture as king from the chancellor of Emperor Henry VI. In 1197, following the death of Henry of Champagne, Amalric succeeded to the throne of Jerusalem-Acre, and in 1198 he married the thrice-widowed Isabel. He chose, however, to govern his two domains separately, and in Acre he proved to be an excellent administrator. The Livre au Roi (Book of the King), an important section of the Assizes of Jerusalem, dates from his reign. He also dealt wisely with Saladin's brother, al-ʿĀdil of Egypt. On Amalric's death in 1205, the kingdoms of Cyprus and Jerusalem-Acre were divided, and in 1210 the latter was given to John of Brienne, a French knight nominated by Philip, who went east and married Conrad's daughter, Mary.
There were also adjustments in the two northern states. When Raymond III of Tripoli died (1187), his county passed to a son of Bohemond III of Antioch, which thus united the two principalities. In general, Antioch-Tripoli followed the relatively independent course laid down by Bohemond III.
Armenia was more closely involved in Latin politics, partly as a result of marriage alliances with the house of Antioch-Tripoli. King Leo II of Armenia joined the Crusaders at Cyprus and Acre. Desirous of a royal crown, he approached both pope and emperor, and in 1198, with papal approval, royal insignia were bestowed by Archbishop Conrad of Mainz, in the name of Henry VI. At the same time, the Armenian church officially accepted a union with Rome, which, however, was never popular with the lower clergy and the general populace.
The Fourth Crusade and the Latin empire of Constantinople
Pope Innocent III was the first pope since Urban II to be both eager and able to make the Crusade a major papal concern. In 1198 he called a new Crusade through legates and encyclical letters. In 1199 a tax was levied on all clerical incomes—later to become a precedent for systematic papal income taxes—and Fulk of Neuilly, a popular orator, was commissioned to preach. At a tournament held by Thibaut III of Champagne, several prominent French nobles took the cross. Among them was Geoffrey of Villehardouin, author of one of the principal accounts of the Crusade; other important nobles joined later, and contact was made with Venice to provide transport.
Unfortunately, Thibaut of Champagne died before the Crusaders departed for Venice, and the barons turned to Boniface of Montferrat, whose involvement as leader of the Crusade proved to be fateful. He had close family ties with both the Byzantine Empire and the Crusader states. His brother, Conrad of Montferrat, had received the crown of Jerusalem only to be murdered by the Assassins shortly thereafter. Before going to the Holy Land, Conrad had married the sister of Emperor Isaac II Angelus and received the title of Caesar. Boniface was also the vassal of Philip of Swabia, who was a contender for the German throne and the son-in-law of Isaac II. In 1195 Isaac was blinded and deposed by his brother, who took the throne as Alexius III. Several years later Isaac's son, also named Alexius, escaped from Constantinople and fled to Philip's court. At Christmas 1201 Boniface, Philip, and the young Alexius discussed the possibility of using the Crusade to depose Alexius III and place the young man on the throne. Boniface sought the approval of the pope for the diversion, but Innocent refused to allow it. The young Alexius also journeyed to Rome but had no better luck with Innocent III. Despite the papal prohibition, Boniface and the Byzantine prince still hoped to find a way to move the Crusade toward Constantinople on its way to the Holy Land.
When the Crusade army arrived in Venice in the summer of 1202, it was only one-third of its projected size. This was a serious problem, since the French had contracted with the Venetians for a fleet and provisions that they now realized they neither needed nor could afford. The Venetians had incurred enormous expense for the French and were understandably upset by their inability to pay. The leader of Venice, Doge Enrico Dandolo, was a man of great sagacity and prudence who was in his 90s and completely blind by the time of the Crusade. Dandolo proposed that if the French would assist the Venetians in capturing the rebellious city of Zadar (now in Croatia), he would be willing to suspend the outstanding debt until it could be paid in captured booty. With few options, the Crusaders agreed, even though Zadar was a Christian city under the control of the king of Hungary, who had taken the Crusader's vow. Innocent was informed of the plan, but his veto was disregarded. In November 1202 the Crusaders captured Zadar and wintered there. Reluctant to jeopardize the Crusade, Innocent gave conditional absolution to the Crusaders, but not to the Venetians.
Meanwhile, envoys from Philip of Swabia arrived at Zadar with an offer from Alexius, the Byzantine prince. If the Crusaders would sail to Constantinople and topple the reigning emperor, Alexius would place the Byzantine church in submission to Rome, pay the Crusaders an enormous sum, and join the Crusade to Egypt (now the centre of Muslim power in the Levant) with a large army. It was a tempting offer for an enterprise that was short on funds. The Crusade leaders accepted it, but a great many of the rank and file wanted nothing to do with the proposal, and many deserted. The Crusade sailed to Corfu before arriving in Constantinople in late June 1203. After the Crusaders attacked the northeastern corner of the city and then set a destructive fire, the citizens of Constantinople turned against Alexius III, who then fled. The Byzantine prince was elevated to the throne as Alexius IV along with his blind father, Isaac II.
Although the new emperor tried to make good his promises to the Crusaders, he soon ran short of money. He also faced anti-Latin hatred in Constantinople, which had been endemic for decades and now reached a fever pitch. Alexius IV, who owed his throne to Latins, became bitterly unpopular and was finally toppled in a palace coup in late January 1204. The Crusaders, now cheated of their reward and disgusted at the treachery of the Byzantines, declared war on Constantinople, which fell to the Fourth Crusade on April 12, 1204. What followed was one of the most profitable and disgraceful sacks of a city in history. Despite their oaths and the threat of excommunication, the Crusaders ruthlessly and systematically violated the city's holy sanctuaries, destroying, defiling, or stealing all they could lay hands on. Many also broke their vows to respect the women of Constantinople and assaulted them. When Innocent III heard of the conduct of his pilgrims, he was filled with shame and strongly rebuked them.
Before the capture of the city, the Crusaders had decided that 12 electors (6 Venetians and 6 Franks) should choose an emperor who would rule one-fourth of the imperial domain. The other three-fourths was to be divided. The clergy of the party that did not include the emperor-elect were to oversee Hagia Sophia and choose a patriarch. A small amount of property was specifically designated to support the clergy, and the rest was divided as booty.
Once order had been restored, the Franks and the Venetians implemented their agreement; Baldwin of Flanders was elected emperor, and the Venetian Thomas Morosini was chosen patriarch. Various Latin-French lordships throughout Greece—in particular, the duchy of Athens and the principality of the Morea—did provide cultural contacts with western Europe and promoted the study of Greek. There was also a French impact on Greece. Notably, a collection of laws, the Assises de Romanie (Assizes of Romania), was produced. The Chronicle of the Morea appeared in both French and Greek (and later Aragonese) versions. Impressive remains of Crusader castles and Gothic churches can still be seen in Greece. Nevertheless, the Latin empire always rested on shaky foundations. Indeed, not all the Byzantine Empire was conquered by the Crusade. The imperial government continued in Nicaea, and the offshoot empire of Trebizond, at the eastern end of the Black Sea, lasted until 1461. The Byzantine despotate of Epirus was also established, and the Bulgarians remained hostile to the Crusaders. Finally, in 1261 a sadly diminished Constantinople was reconquered by Michael VIII Palaeologus with the aid of Genoa, the traditional rival of Venice. The city, however, would never be the same. For the remainder of its Christian history, it would remain poor, dilapidated, and largely abandoned.
The belief that the conquest of Constantinople would help Crusading efforts was a mirage. Indeed, the opposite was true, for the unstable Latin empire siphoned off much of Europe's Crusading energy. The legacy of the Fourth Crusade was the deep sense of betrayal the Latins had instilled in their Greek coreligionists. With the events of 1204, the schism between the Catholic West and Orthodox East was complete.
Crusades of the 13th century
The Albigensian Crusade
By the middle of the 12th century, control of Jerusalem and the Holy Land was no longer the only goal of the Crusades. Rather, Crusading became a special class of war called by the pope against the enemies of the faith, who were by no means confined to the Levant. Crusades continued in the Baltic region against pagans and in Spain against Muslims. Yet in the heart of Europe a more serious threat faced Christendom—heresy. In the medieval world, heresy did not represent benign religious diversity but was seen as a cancerous threat to the salvation of souls. It was held to be even more dangerous than the faraway Muslims, because it harmed the body of Christ from within.
The most vibrant heresy in Europe was Catharism, also known as Albigensianism for the Albi, a city in southern France where it flourished. A dualist belief, Catharism held that the universe was a battleground between good, which was spirit, and evil, which was matter. Human beings were believed to be spirits trapped in physical bodies. The leaders of the religion, the perfects, lived with great austerity, remaining chaste and avoiding all foods that came from sexual union.
The church had attempted for years to root out the heresy from southern France, where it remained popular, particularly among the nobility. St. Dominic, who was sent to the region to preach to the people and debate the Cathar leaders, formed his Order of Preachers (Dominicans) in response to the heresy. All efforts at eradication failed, however, largely because of the tolerance of the Cathari maintained by Raymond VI of Toulouse, the greatest baron of the area, and by most secular lords in the region. Shortly after his excommunication for abetting the heretics, Raymond was implicated in the murder of a papal legate sent to investigate the situation. For Pope Innocent III that was the final straw. In March 1208 he called for a Crusade against Raymond and the heretics of Languedoc, which began the following year.
The Albigensian Crusade was immensely popular in northern France because it gave pious warriors an opportunity to win a Crusade indulgence without traveling far from home or serving more than 40 days. During the first season the Crusaders captured Béziers in the heart of Cathar territory and—following the instructions of the papal legate who allegedly said, “Kill them all. God will know his own,” when asked how the Crusaders should distinguish the heretics from true Christians—massacred almost the entire population of the city. With the exception of Carcassonne, which held out for a few months, much of the territory of the Albigeois surrendered to the Crusaders. Command of the Crusade was then given to Simon, lord of Montfort and earl of Leicester, who had served during the Fourth Crusade. Abandoning the Crusade after it attacked the Christians at Zadar, Simon went to fight in the Holy Land.
The Albigensian Crusade dragged on for several years, with new recruits arriving each spring to assist Simon. By the end of the summer, however, they would all return home, leaving him with a skeleton force to defend his gains. By 1215, when the fourth Lateran Council met to consider the state of the church, Simon had captured most of the region, including Toulouse. The council gave the lands to Simon and then rescinded the Crusade indulgence for the war so that a new Crusade to the East could be organized.
A few years later a rebellion against the northerners that crystallized around Raymond and his son, Raymond VII, recaptured much lost territory. Simon was killed during a siege of Toulouse. The Albigensian Crusade was finally brought to a close by the French King Louis VIII. Although he died soon after his victory in the south, Louis restored northern control over the region in 1226 and dashed the hopes of Raymond's family for an independent Toulouse. In 1229 the younger Raymond accepted a peace through which all his ancestral lands would go to the royal house of the Capetians at his death. It was, therefore, the French crown, which came to the Crusade quite late, that was the ultimate victor.
For all of its violence and destruction, the Albigensian Crusade failed to remove the Cathar heresy from Languedoc. It did, however, provide a solid framework of new secular lords willing to work with the church against the heretics. Through the subsequent efforts of the Dominican inquisitors, Catharism was virtually eliminated in Languedoc within a century.
The Children's Crusade
The same strong feelings of piety and righteousness that led knights to take the cross and march to war also affected the common people, who lacked the wealth or training to do the same. The repeated failure of the organized Crusades to reclaim Jerusalem and the True Cross frustrated all Christians. This combination of frustration and strong religious enthusiasm led to frequent and sometimes bizarre manifestations of popular piety, such as the so-called Children's Crusade in 1212.
The Children's Crusade was neither a true Crusade nor made up of an army of children. The pope did not call for it—indeed, no one did. Instead, it was an unsanctioned popular movement, whose beginning and ending are hard to trace. It is known, however, that in early 1212 a young man named Nicholas from Cologne became the focal point for a popular movement that swept through the Rhineland. After having allegedly received divine instruction, Nicholas set out to rescue Jerusalem from the Muslims. He believed that when he reached the Mediterranean, God would dry up the waters so that he could walk across to Palestine. Hundreds and then thousands of children, adolescents, women, the elderly, the poor, parish clergy, and the occasional thief joined him in his march south. In every town the people hailed the “Crusaders” as heroes, although the educated clergy ridiculed them as deranged or deceived. In July 1212, despite the summer heat that had caused many to give up and return home, Nicholas and his followers crossed the Alps into Italy.
Word of Nicholas's Crusade spread across Europe, sparking similar “miracles” and popular movements, although usually on a much smaller scale. One such movement, which may actually have preceded the Rhineland Crusade, occurred in Cloyes, a small town in France, where Stephen, a 12-year-old shepherd, had a vision of Jesus, who appeared dressed as a pilgrim and asked for bread. After receiving some bread from the boy, Jesus gave him a letter for the king of France. Stephen then left for Paris and attracted hundreds of followers from the same constituency that Nicholas of Cologne did. As they marched toward Paris, they sang, “Lord God, exalt Christianity! Lord God, restore to us the True Cross!” When they reached the city, Stephen delivered the letter to Philip Augustus. The king thanked the boy for the letter, and then everyone cheered and went home. The letter's contents are not known with certainty, but it was probably an exhortation for the king to once again Crusade—something Philip had no intention of doing.
By late summer Nicholas's multitudes had reached Lombardy and entered various port cities. Nicholas himself arrived with a large gathering at Genoa on August 25. To the great disappointment of the “Crusaders,” the sea did not open for them, nor did it allow them to walk across its waves. At this point many probably returned home, while others remained in Genoa. It was said that some marched to Rome, where Innocent III praised their zeal but released them from their “vows.” The fate of Nicholas is also unclear. Some claimed that he joined the Fifth Crusade, others that he died in Italy.
The Teutonic Knights and the Baltic Crusades
Founded during the Third Crusade, the Teutonic Knights were a German military order modeled on the Hospitallers. By the 13th century the order had begun to shift its focus from the Holy Land to Europe. From 1211 to 1225 it waged war against pagans in Transylvania and effectively Christianized the region, but it was subsequently expelled by the king of Hungary. The grand master of the order, Hermann von Salza, then agreed to assist the Polish duke Conrad of Mazovia in his war against the pagan Prussians of the Baltic region. The emperor and the pope agreed that the Teutonic Knights should rule all pagan lands that they conquered, and during the 13th and 14th centuries the order conquered all of Prussia and the northern Baltic region, building a prosperous Christian state there. As rulers the Teutonic Knights played an important part in European history for many centuries.
The Fifth Crusade
The Children's Crusade revealed that, despite repeated failures, Europeans were still committed to recapturing Jerusalem and rescuing the True Cross. Almost immediately after the Fourth Crusade, Innocent III began planning for another expedition to the East. Although delayed by controversies involving the imperial succession and related matters, Innocent was ready to call the warriors of Christendom to fight for the restoration of Western rule in the Holy Land by 1213. Innocent learned from the mistakes of the Fourth Crusade and was determined that the new effort be controlled every step of the way by the church. He commissioned a new corps of Crusade preachers, who were specially trained and then dispatched strategically to garner warriors. Innocent also sent out legates to oversee recruitment and preparations. He wanted this new Crusade to be an inclusive effort. Those who could not physically march to the East were enjoined to help the Crusade through prayer and fasting. Those with sufficient funds could share in the Crusade indulgence by financing a Crusader who would otherwise be unable to go. At the fourth Lateran Council in 1215, the blueprints for the new campaign were drafted, and all of Europe was directed to take part. Innocent, however, died before the first Crusaders left, and his successor, Honorius III, would oversee the progress of the Fifth Crusade.
The first contingents of the Fifth Crusade, led by King Andrew of Hungary, reached Acre in the fall of 1217. Andrew accomplished little, however, before departing in January 1218. A large fleet of Frisian, German, and Italian Crusaders arrived in April and joined the remnants of Andrew's force. In May the combined army set out for Egypt under the leadership of John of Brienne (the titular king of Jerusalem from 1210). The idea of capturing Egypt in order to break Muslim power in the region before turning to Jerusalem had been endorsed by Richard the Lion-Heart during the Third Crusade. Although controversial then, by the time of the Fifth Crusade it was the accepted strategy among Crusade leaders. By August the Crusaders had captured a strategic tower at Damietta. In September the expedition organized under papal auspices and consisting mainly of French Crusaders arrived under the legate Cardinal-Legate Pelagius. Since Pelagius maintained that the Crusaders were under the jurisdiction of the church, he declined to accept the leadership of John of Brienne and often interfered in military decisions.
By February 1219 the Muslims were seriously alarmed and offered peace terms that included the cession of the kingdom of Jerusalem, including the holy city, as well as the return of the True Cross. King John and many of the Crusaders were eager to accept, but Pelagius, supported by the military orders and the Italians, refused. Damietta was finally taken on November 5, 1219, and for more than a year no further progress was made. Pelagius remained optimistic, still expecting the arrival of Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II—who had promised to go on Crusade in 1215—and convinced of the imminent approach of a legendary Asian Christian “King David.” In July 1221 he ordered an advance on Cairo, which King John opposed but joined. Unfortunately, Pelagius, who knew nothing about the hydrography of the Nile, chose a campsite susceptible to the river's annual floods. Al-Malik al-Kāmil, the Egyptian sultan, opened the sluice gates, and the Crusade army was hopelessly bogged down and forced to surrender. In return for their lives, the Crusaders agreed to evacuate Damietta and leave Egypt. It was a bitter defeat, for, although Jerusalem had been at their fingertips throughout the Crusade, they were now forced to retreat with nothing.
Always on the verge of success, the Fifth Crusade failed largely because of divided leadership and the frequently unwise decisions of Pelagius. It might perhaps have succeeded if Frederick II had set out as promised, and it is significant that disillusioned critics blamed the emperor and the pope as well as Pelagius. All in all, it was a dreary episode, relieved only by the presence of Francis of Assisi, whom Pelagius reluctantly permitted to cross the lines, where he was courteously received by al-Malik al-Kāmil. However, despite Francis's heartfelt plea, the Muslim leader declined his offer to convert to Christianity.
The Crusade of Frederick II
The failure of the Fifth Crusade placed a heavy responsibility on Frederick II, whose motives as a Crusader are difficult to assess. A controversial figure, he has been regarded by some as the archenemy of the popes and by others as the greatest of emperors. His intellectual interests included Islam, and his attitude might seem to be more akin to that of the Eastern barons than the typical Western Crusader. Through his marriage to John of Brienne's daughter Isabella (Yolande), he established a claim first to the kingship and then, on Isabella's death in 1228, to the regency of Jerusalem (Acre). As emperor, he could claim suzerainty over Cyprus because his father and predecessor, Henry VI, was paid homage by the Cypriot king and bestowed a crown on him.
After being allowed several postponements by the pope to settle affairs in the empire, Frederick finally agreed to terms that virtually placed his expedition under papal jurisdiction. Yet his entire Eastern policy was inextricably connected with his European concerns: Sicily, Italy and the papacy, and Germany. Cyprus-Jerusalem became, as a consequence, part of a greater imperial design.
Most of his Crusade fleet left Italy in the late summer of 1227, but Frederick was delayed by illness. During the delay he received envoys from al-Malik al-Kāmil of Egypt, who, threatened by the ambitions of his Ayyūbid brothers, was disposed to negotiate. Meanwhile, Pope Gregory IX, less patient than his predecessor, rejected Frederick's plea that illness had hindered his departure and excommunicated the emperor. Thus, when Frederick departed in the summer of 1228 with the remainder of his forces, he was in the equivocal position of a Crusader under the ban of the church. He arrived in Cyprus on July 21.
In Cyprus, John of Ibelin, the leading member of the influential Ibelin family, had been named regent for the young Henry I. Along with most of the barons, he was willing to recognize the emperor's rights as suzerain in Cyprus. But because news of Isabella's death had arrived in Acre, the emperor could claim only a regency there for his infant son. John obeyed the emperor's summons to meet him in Cyprus but, despite intimidation, refused to surrender his lordship of Beirut and insisted that his case be brought before the high court of barons. The matter was set aside, and Frederick left for Acre.
In Acre, Frederick met more opposition. News of his excommunication had arrived, and many refused to support him. Dependent, therefore, on the Teutonic Knights and his own small contingent of German Crusaders, he was forced to attempt what he could by diplomacy. Negotiations, accordingly, were reopened with al-Malik al-Kāmil.
The treaty of 1229 is unique in the history of the Crusades. By diplomacy alone and without major military confrontation, Jerusalem, Bethlehem, and a corridor running to the sea were ceded to the kingdom of Jerusalem. Exception was made for the Temple area, the Dome of the Rock, and the Aqṣā Mosque, which the Muslims retained. Moreover, all current Muslim residents of the city would retain their homes and property. They would also have their own city officials to administer a separate justice system and safeguard their religious interests. The walls of Jerusalem, which had already been destroyed, were not rebuilt, and the peace was to last for 10 years.
Nevertheless, the benefits of the treaty of 1229 were more apparent than real. The areas ceded were not easily defensible, and Jerusalem soon fell into disorder. Furthermore, the treaty was denounced by the devout of both faiths. When the excommunicated Frederick entered Jerusalem, the patriarch placed the city under interdict. No priest was present, and Frederick placed a crown on his own head while one of the Teutonic Knights read the ceremony. Leaving agents in charge, he hastily returned to Europe and at San Germano made peace with the pope (July 23, 1230). Thereafter his legal position was secure, and the pope ordered the patriarch to lift the interdict.
Jerusalem and Cyprus, however, were now plagued by civil war because Frederick's imperial concept of government was contrary to the well-established preeminence of the Jerusalem baronage. The barons of both Jerusalem and Cyprus, in alliance with the Genoese and a commune formed in Acre that elected John of Ibelin mayor, resisted the imperial deputies, who were supported by the Pisans, the Teutonic Knights, Bohemond of Antioch, and a few nobles. The clergy, the other military orders, and the Venetians stood aloof.
The barons were successful in Cyprus, and in 1233 Henry I was recognized as king. Even after John of Ibelin, the “Old Lord of Beirut,” died in 1236, resistance continued. In 1243 a parliament at Acre refused homage to Frederick's son Conrad, unless he appeared in person, and named Alice, queen dowager of Cyprus, regent.
Thus it was that baronial rule triumphed over imperial administration in the Levant. But the victory of the barons brought to the kingdom not strength but continued division, which was made more serious by the appearance of new forces in the Muslim world. The Khwārezmian Turks, pushed south and west by the Mongols, had upset the power balance and gained the support of Egypt. After the 10 years' peace had expired in 1239, the Muslims easily took back the defenseless Jerusalem. The Crusades of 1239 to 1241, under Thibaut IV of Champagne and Richard of Cornwall, brought about the return of the city as well as other lost territories through negotiation. However, in 1244 an alliance of Jerusalem and Damascus failed to prevent the capture and sack of Jerusalem by Khwārezmians with Egyptian aid. All the diplomatic gains of the preceding years were lost. Once again the Christians were confined to a thin strip of ports along the Mediterranean coast.
The Crusades of St. Louis
In June 1245, a year after the final loss of Jerusalem, Pope Innocent IV opened a great ecclesiastical council at Lyons. Although urgent appeals for help had come from the East, it is unlikely that the Crusade was uppermost in the pope's mind, for a combination of crises confronted the church: numerous complaints of clerical abuses, increasing troubles with Frederick II in Italy, and the advance of the Mongols into eastern Europe. Nevertheless, when King Louis IX of France announced his intention to lead a new Crusade, the pope gave it his support and authorized the customary levy on clerical incomes.
As a Crusader, Louis (who would be canonized in 1297) was the antithesis of Frederick. Possessed of a rare combination of religious devotion, firmness as a ruler, and bravery as a warrior, he seemed the very ideal of the Crusader. He was beloved by his subjects and respected abroad. He ardently believed the Crusade to be God's work, and he was far from sympathetic to the pope's use of Crusade propaganda against the emperor.
It was three years before Louis was ready to embark. Peace had to be arranged with England, transport had to be provided by Genoa and Marseilles, and funds had to be raised. When the king embarked in August 1248, he was accompanied by his queen; his brothers Robert of Artois and Charles of Anjou; many distinguished French nobles, including Jean, sire de Joinville, author of The Life of St. Louis (1309); and a small English contingent. His army was a formidable one, numbering perhaps 15,000. France was left in the experienced hands of the queen mother, Blanche of Castile.
The Crusade arrived at Cyprus in September, and it was again decided to attack Egypt. Since a winter campaign was not feasible and Louis rejected the suggestion that he attempt negotiations, it was not until May 1249 that an expedition of some 120 large and many smaller vessels got under way. Fortune favoured them at first, and Damietta was again in Christian hands by June. Shortly afterward the army was strengthened by the arrival of Louis's third brother, Alphonse of Poitiers. Sultan al-Ṣāliḥ Ayyūb's death was followed by confusion in Cairo, which, after some argument, had become the Crusaders' objective. In February 1250 Robert of Artois led a surprise attack on the Egyptian camp 2 miles (3 km) from Al-Manṣūrah, but, rejecting the advice of more-experienced campaigners and acting impetuously, he was trapped within the city. Many knights lost their lives. Louis soon arrived with the main army and won another victory, albeit a costly one, near Al-Manṣūrah. It was the last Crusader success.
Meanwhile, Tūrān-Shāh, the sultan's son, had returned from Diyarbakır (now in Turkey) to Cairo and temporarily dominated dissident factions there. Frankish supply ships from Damietta were intercepted, and before long the Crusaders were suffering from famine and disease. Louis, reluctant to abandon a work to which he had dedicated his very kingdom, perhaps delayed too long before ordering a retreat. Refusing the pleas of others to protect himself by fleeing, he remained to lead his soldiers and was captured with many of them as the Muslim forces closed in.
The king and nobles were held for ransom, but many nonnoble captives were killed. The queen, who had just given birth to a son sorrowfully named John Tristan, managed with great courage to secure sufficient food and to persuade the Genoese and Pisans not to evacuate Damietta until it could be ceded formally by treaty and the king's ransom arranged. On May 6, 1250, the king was released, and Damietta surrendered.
Despite the pleadings of his advisers, Louis did not return home immediately. He felt bound in conscience to negotiate the release of as many prisoners as possible, and he also improved the defenses of the kingdom by strengthening a number of fortifications before he left in April 1254. Thus, he atoned in some small measure for the failure of the Crusade and returned to France, determined to lead a life as a Christian king worthy of rescuing Jerusalem one day.
During these same years a group of Mongols under Hülegü overran Mesopotamia and in 1258 took Baghdad, thus ending the venerable ʿAbbāsid caliphate. In 1260 the Mamlūks of Egypt, a new dynasty that had arisen from the leaders of former slave bodyguards of the sultan, defeated the Mongols at ʿAyn Jālūd in Syria and halted their southward advance. The Muslim states of Syria were caught in the middle, and the Latin states were in grave danger. King Hayton of Armenia and his son-in-law Bohemond VI of Antioch-Tripoli allied themselves with the Mongols. But the barons at Acre were still more disposed to dealing with the Muslims, whom they knew, than with the terrifying and unknown Mongols.
In 1260, after murdering his predecessor, Baybars became sultan of Egypt. Though this famous Mamlūk sultan did not live to see the fall of the Latin states (he died in 1277), he had reduced them to a few coastal outposts. Baybars was ruthless, utterly lacking the generous chivalry that the Crusaders had admired in Saladin. Most of his conquests were followed by a general massacre of the inhabitants, often including the native Christians, especially when they had been in league with the Mongols. In 1265 he took Caesarea, Haifa, and Arsuf. The following year he conquered Galilee and devastated Cilician Armenia. In 1268 Antioch was taken and all the inhabitants slaughtered. The great Hospitaller fortress of Krak des Chevaliers fell three years later.
These disasters again brought pleas for aid from the West. King Louis once again took up the cross, but his second venture, the Eighth Crusade, never reached the East. The expedition instead went to Tunis, probably because of the influence of Louis's brother Charles of Anjou, who had recently been named by the papacy as the successor to the Hohenstaufens in Sicily. In 1268 he defeated Conradin, the last of the Hohenstaufen line, and he was soon involved in grandiose Mediterranean projects, which ultimately included even Byzantium.
Louis's new Crusade embarked from southern France in July 1270. Soon after the French landed in North Africa, disease struck the troops and claimed the lives of both Louis and his son John Tristan. Charles arrived with the Sicilian fleet in time to bargain for an indemnity to evacuate the remnants of the army. Thus, the Crusade ended in tragedy and brought no help to the East. Nevertheless, despite two failures, Louis IX became for all Christians the model of the selfless warrior of Christ. Although the expansion of Muslim power seemed increasingly unstoppable, Europeans continued to embrace the idea of the Crusades and to pray for their success.
The final loss of the Crusader states
By the end of the 13th century, Crusading had become more expensive. The time had passed when a Crusade army was made up of knights who served under a lord and paid their own way. Economic pressures caused many nobles to seek royal service. Royal armies, therefore, became more professional, and many knights as well as foot soldiers served for pay. Moreover, the rise of royal authority meant that great Crusades could no longer be cobbled together by feudal lords but were increasingly reliant on kings, who were by their nature easily distracted by events at home.
In the East chronic divisions, similar to those in Europe, were a major cause of the Crusader kingdom's downfall. From the time of Frederick II, the kingdom had been governed by absentee rulers; the Hohenstaufens were represented in the East at first by agents, after 1243 by regents of the Jerusalem dynasty chosen by the high court of barons. In 1268, on the death of the last Hohenstaufen, the crown was given to Hugh III of Cyprus, who returned to the island in 1276 thoroughly frustrated. Then in 1277 Charles of Anjou, as part of his attempt to create a Mediterranean-wide empire and with papal approval, bought the rights of the nearest claimant and sent his representative. Finally, after Charles's death in 1285, the barons once again chose a native ruler, Henry II of Cyprus.
Successive regents had failed to control the Jerusalem baronage, and this ultimately resulted in the disintegration of the entire structure of Outremer into separate parts. Antioch-Tripoli before its fall had been increasingly aloof and through intermarriage closely tied to Armenia. In Acre, the seat of government of the kingdom, there was a commune of barons and bourgeois. Immigration had ceased, and the barons were now reduced in numbers as old families had died out. Some resided in Cyprus, and others were nominal lords in Palestine of fiefs actually under Muslim control. The military orders, habitually in conflict, were virtually distinct entities with extensive connections in Europe. The bourgeois population had also considerably altered in composition during the 13th century. Many criminals and other undesirables had found their way to Acre. More important, the earlier French predominance in the region had given way to an Italian one. But the Italians of Outremer were as divided as they were in Italy. The Genoese-Venetian rivalry extended to the Levant and occasionally, as in Acre in 1256, resulted in outright war.
The papacy's concern for Outremer was not confined to efforts to enlist military aid. Papal financial support was continuous, and the popes exchanged diplomatic envoys with Eastern rulers, both Muslim and Mongol. Furthermore, the 13th-century patriarchs of Jerusalem, commonly named by the pope, were also papal legates. But no absentee king, pope, or patriarch-legate could bring to the Latin East the unity necessary for its survival.
The death of Baybars in 1277, therefore, brought only temporary respite for the Crusaders, who remained divided and isolated. In 1280 they again failed to join the Mongols, whom Sultan Qalāʾūn defeated in 1281. The ineffectiveness of the Jerusalem administration was becoming apparent even to Easterners, and the Il-Khan Abagha, the Mongol leader in Iran, sent his deputy Rabban Sauma to the kings of Europe and the pope to seek an alliance. The effort was fruitless. Tripoli fell in 1289, and Acre, the last Crusader stronghold on the mainland, was besieged in 1291. After a desperate and heroic defense, the city was taken by the Mamlūks, and the inhabitants who survived the massacres were enslaved. Acre and all the castles along the Mediterranean coast were systematically destroyed.
A growing sense of their isolation may have been the reason that the Franks of the 13th century did not develop further the distinctive culture of their predecessors. The remarkable palace of the Ibelins in Beirut, built early in the century, boasted Byzantine mosaics. But, partly because of King Louis's four-year stay in the kingdom, remains of churches and castles indicate a close following of adherence to French Gothic architectural style. Literary tastes were also distinctly French, and the production of manuscripts followed French traditions. At the coronation festivities for Henry II in 1286, in total disregard—or perhaps in chivalrous defiance—of the ruin surrounding them, the nobles amused themselves by acting out the romances of Lancelot and Tristan.
The greatest cultural achievement of the Second Kingdom was the collection of legal treatises, the Assizes of Jerusalem. The sections that were compiled in the middle years of the century and, therefore, in the atmosphere of the wars against the agents of Frederick II constitute a veritable charter of baronial rights. In fact, two of the authors were members of the Ibelin family, and a third, Philip of Novara, was a close associate. These sections indicate a shift from the earlier Book of the King, which more nearly reflects the attitudes of the 12th century. Nevertheless, the Assizes belong to medieval Europe's legal renaissance.
The later Crusades
Europe was dismayed by the disaster of 1291. Pope Nicholas IV had tried to organize aid beforehand, and he and his successors continued to do so afterward, but without success. France, which had always been the main bulwark of the Crusades, was in serious conflict with England, which led to the outbreak of the Hundred Years' War in 1337. Moreover, the continued decline of papal authority and rise of royal power meant that most of Europe's warriors were busy at home. The best that the church could do was to organize smaller Crusade expeditions with very limited goals.
In the East the military orders could no longer offer a standing nucleus of troops. In 1308 the Hospitallers took Rhodes and established their headquarters there. In 1344, with some assistance, they occupied Smyrna, which they held until 1402. Meanwhile, the Teutonic Knights had moved their operations to the Baltic area. The Templars were less fortunate. In 1308 the French Templars were arrested by Philip IV, and in 1312 the order was suppressed by Pope Clement V. Finally, in 1314, Jacques de Molay, the order's last grand master, was burned at the stake.
It is not surprising, therefore, that papal calls to Crusade were answered largely in the form of Crusade theories. For some years after 1291, various projects were proposed, all designed to avoid previous mistakes and explore new tactics. In 1305 the Franciscan missionary Ramon Llull, for example, in his Liber de fine (“Book of the End”), suggested a campaign of informed preaching as well as military force. At the beginning of the 14th century, Pierre Dubois submitted a detailed scheme for a Crusade to be directed by Philip IV of France, and in 1321 Marino Sanudo, in his Secreta fidelium crucis (“Secrets of the Faithful of the Cross”), produced an elaborate plan for an economic blockade of Egypt. But none of these or any other such schemes was put into effect.
King Peter I of Cyprus finally organized an expedition that in 1365 succeeded in the temporary occupation of Alexandria. After a horrible sack and massacre, the unruly Crusaders returned to Cyprus with immense booty. Peter planned to return, but no European aid was forthcoming, and after his murder in 1369 a peace treaty was signed.
With the failure of all attempts to regain a foothold on the mainland, Cyprus remained the sole Crusader outpost, and after 1291 it was faced with a serious refugee problem. It was in Cyprus that many of the institutions established by the Franks survived. Although Jerusalem and Cyprus normally had separate governments, through intermarriage and the exigencies of diplomacy, the histories of the two had become interwoven. Regents of one were often chosen from among relatives in the other. It has been noted that many Jerusalem barons resided in Cyprus. With suitable modifications, the Assizes of Jerusalem applied on the island, and on the mainland the French character of the Cypriot Latins is evident in the remains of Gothic structures.
In one respect Cyprus did differ from the mainland. Whereas the First Kingdom had established a modus vivendi with its native population, such was not the case in the island kingdom. Many Greek landholders had fled, and those who remained suffered a loss of status. All Greeks resisted the Latinizing efforts of the early 13th-century popes and their representatives. Innocent IV was more flexible, but tension persisted until the Turkish conquest in the 16th century.
As the Ottoman Turks expanded their power in the Levant, they took an increasingly larger role in Byzantine politics. During a civil war in 1348, Emperor John Cantacuzenus allowed the Turks to cross the Dardanelles into Greece. The gates to Europe, so long defended by Constantinople, were now opened to a powerful Muslim empire, and waves of Turks crossed over. By the end of the 14th century, they had conquered all of Bulgaria and most of Greece and had surrounded Constantinople. The rapid expansion of the Turks into Christian Europe changed the nature of the Eastern Crusades. No longer aimed at conquering faraway Palestine, they became desperate attempts to defend Europe itself.
One of the greatest efforts to repulse the Turkish advance was the Crusade of Nicopolis. Prompted by a plea from King Sigismund of Hungary in 1395, the Crusade was joined by powerful Burgundian and German armies who rendezvoused at Buda the following year. Although it was one of the largest Crusading forces ever assembled, it was crushed utterly by the army of Sultan Bayezid I. Hungary was left virtually defenseless, and the smashing defeat of the Crusade of Nicopolis led many to fear that all of Europe would soon succumb to the Muslim advance.
Shorn of its empire, Constantinople continued to hold out against the Turks, but it could not do so for long without aid. Emperor John VIII, the patriarch of Constantinople, and members of the Greek clergy traveled to the West in 1437 to attend the Council of Florence. The disputes that had separated the Latin and Greek churches were frankly debated at the council. The Latin side won out, however, because the Greeks desperately needed Western help to save Constantinople. Even though the emperor and patriarch accepted papal primacy and the reunification of the churches was solemnly declared, the Greek people refused to accept submission to Rome.
Shortly after the Council of Florence, Pope Eugenius IV organized a Crusade to relieve Constantinople. Recruits mainly from Poland, Walachia, and Hungary joined the so-called Crusade of Varna, which was led by Hunyadi János, the ruler of Transylvania, and King Władysław III of Poland and Hungary. In 1444 the force of some 20,000 men entered Serbia and captured Niš. Sultan Murad II offered Hungary a 10-year truce, which was ultimately refused. He then led his forces to Varna in Bulgaria, which the Crusaders were in the process of besieging, and destroyed the Christian army. The king of Hungary and the papal legate were killed in the carnage. Nine years later Constantinople at last fell to the Ottoman Turks. Riding triumphantly into the city, Sultan Mehmed II made it clear that he was determined to conquer Rome as well.
Mehmed almost made good on that threat. In 1480 he launched two major offensives against the Christians. The first, a massive siege of the Hospitallers on Rhodes, failed. The second, an invasion of Italy, met with more success. The city of Otranto was captured, which provided the Turks with a strategic beachhead on the peninsula. Panic broke out in Rome as people packed their bags and prepared to flee the city. Pope Sixtus IV issued a call for a Crusade to defend Italy, but only Italians took an interest. Fate stepped in, however, when the sultan died on May 3, 1481. Turkish attention shifted to a power struggle for the throne, and thus allowed a papal fleet to recapture Otranto.
Only in Spain did Crusades meet with regular success. The unification of Aragon and Castile under Ferdinand and Isabella in 1479 gave Christian knights the opportunity to take up the cross against the remaining Muslims in Iberia. The campaigns continued throughout the 1480s and led to the surrender of Grenada, the last Muslim stronghold, on January 12, 1492. Nearly 800 years after the first effort to expel the Muslims, the Reconquista was completed, and Christians across Europe rang church bells and marched in processions of thanksgiving.
Crusading came to an end in the 16th century, mainly because of changes in Europe brought on by the Protestant Reformation and not because the Muslim threat had diminished. Martin Luther and other Protestants had no use for Crusades, which they believed were cynical ploys by the papacy to grab power from secular lords. Protestants also rejected the doctrine of indulgence, central to the idea of Crusade. Despite the decline in the appeal of Crusading, the popes continued to call for peace in Europe so that Crusades could be launched against the Turks, and they often financed such wars in holy leagues with various states such as Venice or Spain. One holy league won a dramatic victory against the Ottoman fleet at Lepanto in 1571. The Battle of Lepanto, although not militarily decisive, did give new hope to Europeans, who saw for the first time that it was indeed possible to defeat the Turks.
A few last vestiges of the Crusading movement, however, survived its demise. The Hospitallers, ejected from Rhodes by Sultan Süleyman the Magnificent in 1522, moved to the island of Malta, where they continued to take part in holy leagues. They also remained true to their mission to care for the poor and sick and built a great hospital at Valletta on Malta that attracted patients from across Europe. The Hospitallers retained the island until 1798, when Napoleon expelled them. They then moved to Rome, where they became a government-in-exile. Known today as the Knights of Malta, they still issue passports and are recognized as a sovereign state by some countries. More important, around the world they continue to devote themselves to the care of the poor and sick.
The Teutonic Knights declined after they were defeated by Poland and Lithuania in 1410. In 1525 the grand master, under Protestant influence, dissolved the order in Prussia and took personal control of its lands as a vassal of the king of Poland. The order was officially dissolved in 1809. The Austrian emperor reestablished the Teutonic Order as a religious institution in 1834, headquartering it in Vienna, where it remains today doing charitable work and caring for the sick.
The results of the Crusades
The entire structure of European society changed during the 12th and 13th centuries, and there was a time when this change was attributed largely to the Crusades. Historians now, however, tend to view the Crusades as only one, albeit significant, factor in Europe's development. It is likely that the disappearance of old families and the appearance of new ones can be traced in part to the Crusades, but generalizations must be made with caution. It should, moreover, be remembered that, while some Crusaders sold or mortgaged their property, usually to ecclesiastical foundations, others bequeathed it to relatives. The loss of life was without doubt considerable; many Crusaders, however, did return to their homes.
The sectors acquired by burgeoning Italian cities in the Crusader states enabled them to extend their trade with the Muslim world and led to the establishment of trade depots beyond the Crusade frontiers, some of which lasted long after 1291. The transportation they provided was significant in the development of shipbuilding techniques. Italian banking facilities became indispensable to popes and kings. Catalans and Provençals also profited, and, indirectly, so did all of Europe. Moreover, returning Crusaders brought new tastes and increased the demand for spices, Oriental textiles, and other exotic fare. But such demands can also be attributed to changing lifestyles and commercial growth in Europe itself.
The establishment of the Franciscan and Dominican friars in the East during the 13th century made possible the promotion of missions within the Crusade area and beyond. Papal bulls granted special facilities to missionary friars, and popes sent letters to Asian rulers soliciting permission for the friars to carry on their work. Often the friars accompanied or followed Italian merchants, and, since the Mongols were generally tolerant of religious propaganda, missions were established in Iran, the Asian interior, and even China. But, since Islamic law rigidly prohibited propaganda and punished apostasy with death, conversions from Islam were few. The Dominican William of Tripoli had some success, presumably within the Crusaders' area; he and his colleague Riccoldo di Monte Croce both wrote perceptive treatises on Islamic faith and law. Other missionaries usually failed, and many suffered martyrdom. In the 14th century the Franciscans were finally permitted to reside in Palestine as caretakers for the holy places but not as missionaries.
The Crusades, especially the Fourth, so embittered the Greeks that any real reunion of the Eastern and Western churches was, as a result, out of the question. Nonetheless, certain groups of Eastern Christians came to recognize the authority of the pope, and they were usually permitted to retain the use of their own liturgies. Although the majority of the missions that grew out of the Crusades collapsed with the advance of the Ottoman Turks in the Middle East in the mid-14th century, some of the contacts that the Western church had made with its Eastern brethren remained.
Unlike Sicily and Spain, the Latin East did not, it seems, provide an avenue for the transmission of Arabic science and philosophy to the West. But the Crusades did have a marked impact on the development of Western historical literature. From the beginning there was a proliferation of chronicles, eyewitness accounts, and later more ambitious histories, in verse and in prose, in the vernacular as well as in Latin.
There can be little doubt that the Crusades slowed the advance of Islamic power, although how much is an open question. At the very least, they bought Europe some much-needed time. Without centuries of Crusading effort, it is difficult to see how western Europe could have escaped conquest by Muslim armies, which had already captured the rest of the Mediterranean world.
Crusade as metaphor
One of the most enduring though least-discussed results of the Crusades was the development of the word crusade (which first appeared in its Latin form in the late 12th or early 13th century) to denote any common endeavour in a worthy cause. The transformation of the idea of the Crusades from religio-military campaigns into modern metaphors for idealistic, zealous, and demanding struggles to advance the good (“crusades for”) and to oppose perceived evil (“crusades against”) occurred over several centuries and represents the culmination of a movement that began in the late 11th century. By the early 12th century, historiography was already contributing to the idea of Crusade as armed pilgrimage or holy war, which Bernard of Clairvaux in the mid-12th century and Pope Innocent III in the early 13th continued to elaborate. Receptive to chivalric as well as Christian ideals, Crusade ideology proved more durable than the stinging criticisms provoked by successive military defeats, culminating in the loss of the Holy Land in 1291.
The intermittent continuation of the movement during the later Middle Ages led to proposals for new Crusades. Some were grounded in strategic realities, others in Utopian or prophetic aspirations, which emphasized certain moral or political prerequisites as essential to regaining Jerusalem. European intellectuals thus began to reinvent the Crusades. In the early 14th century, Pierre Dubois devised a plan for the French king to seize control of Christendom from the pope and lead a victorious Crusade. Christopher Columbus imagined that a messianic Spanish ascendancy would reconquer Constantinople, then Jerusalem. Viewed as a solution to the woes of Europe, proposals for Crusades against the Ottoman Turks continued to be put forward from the Reformation to the age of Louis XIV.
Continuing interest in the Crusades meant that they never disappeared from public consciousness. During the Enlightenment, when medieval Crusading was perceived as irrational fanaticism, and in the Romantic era, when the Crusades were seen as an adornment of the faith and an embodiment of chivalry, the Crusades never ceased to attract the attention of historians, poets, novelists, composers, and encyclopaedists. Accordingly, the emergence of the Crusade metaphor by the latter half of the 18th century implies at least some knowledge of the historical Crusades. English dictionaries were slow to register the change, however. Neither the Dictionary of Samuel Johnson (1755) nor that of Noah Webster (1828, rev. 1845) includes a metaphoric definition of crusade. Anticipating later lexicographers, however, a future president of the United States was already using the Crusade metaphor in 1786. Writing to jurist George Wythe, Thomas Jefferson urged, “Preach, my dear Sir, a crusade against ignorance; establish and improve the law for educating the common people.” The source of Jefferson's positive use of the Crusade metaphor—to which Americans have ever since remained faithful—remains uncertain. Although he had histories of the Crusades by Louis Maimbourg (1682) and Voltaire (1756) in his well-stocked library, Jefferson would not have been inspired by these works, because of their negative attitude toward the Crusades. Marie-Jean-Antoine-Nicholas de Caritat Condorcet's progressivist interpretation of the Crusades in his Esquisse d'un tableau historique des progrès de l'esprit humain (1795; Sketch for a Historical Picture of the Progress of the Human Mind) postdates Jefferson's metaphor and cannot have been the inspiration. Whatever the origin of Jefferson's usage, the Crusade metaphor had become so well established in American usage by 1861 that E.G. de Fontaine was able to deploy it ironically against his enemies, the abolitionists, who, he sneered, “invited all men to join in the holy crusade” against slavery.
The titles of 20th-century English-language books demonstrate just how popular Crusade metaphors would become, encompassing crusades against tuberculosis, drink, crime, capital punishment, drug abuse, poverty, slavery, and terrorism, along with crusades for justice, education, total freedom, humanity, women's rights, and the environment. The metaphor was used by both sides in the Spanish Civil War and has also been applied to Billy Graham's campaign of evangelism. It also has been used to describe various U.S. government domestic and foreign policy initiatives. But perhaps the best-known use of the metaphor in the 20th century was by Dwight D. Eisenhower, whose 1948 memoir of World War II, Crusade in Europe, applied the term to the great struggle against the Nazis.
Metaphors empower language and thought; they also risk oversimplifying and distorting historical truth and trivializing their subject through repetition. Moreover, metaphors are culturally specific and often convey value judgments. While modern historians attempt to understand the Crusades by placing them in the context of medieval religion, culture, and society, popular metaphoric usage dehistoricizes the Crusades into ongoing, eternal, yet contemporary conflicts of good versus evil—against AIDS, drugs, poverty, terrorism, and so on. American crusades have been exclusively metaphoric, and nearly always, from Jefferson's day to the present, they have carried positive connotations. For Arabs and Muslims, however, the Crusades have highly negative associations of medieval Christian aggression and modern Western imperialism and colonialism. In other words, the ultimate power, significance, and meaning of Crusade and its usefulness as a metaphor depend, in the end, on one's cultural heritage and point of view.
Additional Reading
General works
A good bibliographic introduction to work on the Crusades, including sources, secondary studies, and journal articles, is found in H.E. Mayer and Joyce McLellan, “Select Bibliography of the Crusades,” in Kenneth M. Setton (ed.), A History of the Crusades, vol. 6 (1989), pp. 511–664. The best full-scale treatments of the Crusades in English are Steven Runciman, A History of the Crusades, 3 vol. (1951–54); Jonathan Riley-Smith, The Crusades: A Short History (1987); H.E. Mayer, The Crusades, 2nd ed. (1988); Jean Richard, The Crusades (1999); and Thomas F. Madden, A Concise History of the Crusades (1999). The long-neglected Muslim side of the story is examined by Carole Hillenbrand, The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives (2000). A multivolume collection, Kenneth M. Setton (ed.), A History of the Crusades, 2nd ed. (1969–89), is a cooperative work by a number of historians on a host of topics.
Useful selections of sources in English translation are James A. Brundage, The Crusades: A Documentary Survey (1962); Francesco Gabrieli (compiler), Arab Historians of the Crusades (1969, reissued 1992; originally published in Italian, 1957); Régine Pernoud, The Crusades (1962; originally published in French, 1960); and Louise Riley-Smith and Jonathan Riley-Smith, The Crusades: Idea and Reality, 1095–1274 (1981).
Crusades in the 11th and 12th centuries
The idea of Crusade is explored in Carl Erdmann, The Origin of the Idea of Crusade (1977; originally published in German, 1935), a classic in the history of the Crusades. Interpretations and factors are discussed in Paul Alphandéry, La Chrétienté et l'idée de croisade, 2 vol. (1954–59); James A. Brundage, Medieval Canon Law and the Crusader (1969); and Jonathan Riley-Smith, The First Crusade and the Idea of Crusading (1986).
The best works on the First Crusade are Riley-Smith's work cited above, as well as his The First Crusaders, 1095–1131 (1997). Studies that illuminate other factors in the Crusade are John France, Victory in the East: A Military History of the First Crusade (1994); and Marcus Bull, Knightly Piety and the Lay Response to the First Crusade (1993). The attacks on the Jews during the First Crusade are discussed in Robert Chazan, European Jewry and the First Crusade (1987, reissued 1996), and In the Year 1096: The First Crusade and the Jews (1996). A useful treatment of the Third Crusade can be found in John Gillingham, Richard I (1999).
Crusader states
There are many excellent studies on the history of the Crusader states. Among these are Dana C. Munro, The Kingdom of the Crusaders (1935, reprinted 1966); John L. LaMonte, Feudal Monarchy in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem, 1100 to 1291 (1932, reprinted 1970); Jean Richard, The Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem, 2 vol. (1979; originally published in French, 1953); Joshua Prawer, The Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem: European Colonialism in the Middle Ages (1973); Ralph-Johannes Lilie, Byzantium and the Crusader States, 1096–1204 (1993); Jonathan Phillips, Defenders of the Holy Land: Relations Between the Latin East and the West, 1119-1187 (1996); Ronnie Ellenblum, Frankish Rural Settlement in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem (1998); and Bernard Hamilton, The Leper King and His Heirs: Baldwin IV and the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem (2000).
Crusades in the 13th century
The Fourth Crusade is described by Donald E. Queller and Thomas F. Madden, The Fourth Crusade: The Conquest of Constantinople, 2nd ed. (1997); and, from the Byzantine perspective, in Charles M. Brand, Byzantium Confronts the West, 1180–04 (1968). The Fifth Crusade is discussed in James M. Powell, Anatomy of a Crusade, 1213–1221 (1986); and the older but still useful Joseph P. Donovan, Pelagius and the Fifth Crusade (1950). The best treatment of the Crusades of St. Louis can be found in Jean Richard, Saint Louis: Crusader King of France (1992). William Chester Jordan, Louis IX and the Challenge of the Crusade (1979), places the two Crusades within the framework of Louis's reign.
Later Crusades
The single best resource for the later Crusades is Kenneth M. Setton's magisterial The Papacy and the Levant (1204–1571), 4 vol. (1976–84). Also important are Norman Housley, The Avignon Papacy and the Crusades, 1305–1378 (1986), and The Later Crusades, 1274–1580: From Lyons to Alcazar (1992).
Crusades in the West
The Spanish Reconquista is covered in Derek W. Lomax, The Reconquest of Spain (1978); and Bernard F. Reilly, The Contest of Christian and Muslim Spain, 1031–1157 (1992). The best work on the Albigensian Crusade is Joseph R. Strayer, The Albigensian Crusades, with a new epilogue by Carol Lansing (1992).
Special topics
Military histories of the Latin East are available in R.C. Smail, Crusading Warfare, 1097–1193, 2nd ed. (1995); and Christopher Marshall, Warfare in the Latin East, 1192–1291 (1992). Art and architecture of the Latin East are discussed by T.S.R. Boase, Kingdoms and Strongholds of the Crusaders (1971); Hugh Kennedy, Crusader Castles (1994); and Jaroslav Folda, The Art of the Crusaders in the Holy Land (1995). Histories of the military orders are discussed in Malcolm Barber, The New Knighthood: A History of the Order of the Temple (1994); Jonathan Riley-Smith, The Knights of St. John in Jerusalem and Cyprus, c. 1050–1310 (1967); and Eric Christiansen, The Northern Crusades: The Baltic and Catholic Frontier, 1100–1525, 2nd ed. (1997).
Crusade as metaphor
The history of the metaphoric use of the term crusade is addressed in several works cited above. Other useful studies are Paul Rousset, Histoire d'une idéologie, la Croisade (1983); Giles Constable, “The Historiography of the Crusades,” in Angeliki E. Laiou and Roy Parviz Mottahedeh (eds.), The Crusades from the Perspective of Byzantium and the Muslim World (2001); and James A. Brundage (ed.), The Crusades: Motives and Achievements (1964). A thoughtful introduction to the use of metaphor is George Lakoff and Mark Johnson, Metaphors We Live By (1980).
